THE  PORTLAND  CEMENT 
INDUSTRY 

H  practical  treatise 


THE  BUILDING,  EQUIPPING,  AND  ECONOMICAL  RUNNING 
OP   A   PORTLAND   CEMENT   PLANT 


WITH 


NOTES  ON  PHYSICAL  TESTING 


BY 

WILLIAM    ALDEN    BKOWN 

ASSOC.AM.SOC.C.E.  ', 
MEMBER     SOUTH     WALES     INSTITUTE     OF     ENGINEERS  ; 

formerly 

ASSISTANT  SUPERINTENDENT  COWELL  PORTLAND  CEMENT  COMPANY,  COWELL,  CALIFORNIA, 

U.S.A.  ;     WORKS    MANAGER    BURHAM    PORTLAND     CEMENT    COMPANY    (ASSOCIATED 

PORTLAND   CEMENT  MANUFACTURERS)  ;    WORKS  MANAGER  ABERTHAW  AND 

BRISTOL  CHANNEL  PORTLAND   CEMENT   COMPANY,    SOUTH   WALES 


NEW   YORK 
D.     VAN    NOSTRAND    COMPANY 

25    PARK    PLACE 
1917 


PRINTED  BY   STEPHEN   AUSTIN  AND   SONS,    T.IMITKD, 
HF.RTPOBD,   ENGLAND. 


PREFACE 

AFTER  this  terrible  War  is  over,  in  which  we  are  fighting  for 
the  highest  conception  of  humanity,  "  Right  against  Might,"  and 
our  efforts,  combined  with  those  of  our  gallant  Allies,  have 
been  crowned  with  success,  the  industrial  war  with  our  trade 
competitors  will  dominate  and  express  our  national  needs.  We 
shall  assuredly  suffer  crushing  commercial  defeat  if  advantage 
is  not  taken  by  British  manufacturers  to  study,  adopt,  and  improve 
methods  of  economical  production  which  our  rivals  have  long 
practised.  Neglect,  delay,  or  failure  in  the  attempt  will  lose 
to  Great  Britain  the  markets  of  the  world  for  Portland  Cement. 

It  is  imperative  that  we  should  view  with  detachment  the 
methods  of  our  fathers  if  we  are  to  be  free  to  rise  to  the  heights 
of  modern  practices,  and  to  strive  for  the  mastery  in  the 
perfection  and  dominion  of  our  products. 

Let  us  not  sit  in  our  office  chairs  bemoaning  our  fate  and 
consenting  to  our  trade  passing  to  other  countries,  but  let  us 
get  "busy  in  our  industrial  departments,  and  to  order  add  progress. 
For  the  cement  manufacturer  the  immediate  future  has  immense 
potentialities. 

Much  time  and  pains  have  been  given  to  ensure  accuracy  in 
this  treatise,  to  divest  it  of  scientific  technicalities,  and  to  present! 
a  clear,  simple,  and  realistic  description  of  the  actual  and 
economical  manufacture  of  a  building  material  which  is  of 
fundamental  and  supreme  importance. 

I  acknowledge  indebtedness  to  the  Council  of  the  South  Wales 
Institute  of  Engineers  for  permission  to  include  from  their 
Proceedings,  vol.  xxxi,  No.  4,  my  "  Notes  on  the  subject  of 
Testing  Portland  Cement"  ;  to  Mr.  H.  R.  Cox,  M.C.I.,  for  kindred 
matter  ;  and  to  Mr.  J.  A.  Towers  for  data  on  Power  Plants. 

WILLIAM  ALDEN  BROWN. 
EHOOSE,  GLAMORGAN. 


362463 


SUMMARY   OF    CONTENTS 

PREFACE 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTORY 

Portland  Cement  an  important  Extractive  Industry — The  Relative 
Positions  of  Great  Britain,  United  States  of  America,  and 
Germany — Pre-eminence  of  the  United  States  of  America — 
Great  Britain's  need  to  "  wake  up  " — State  Assistance  required 
to  promote  and  organize  Scientific  Research — Machinery  now 
manufactured  in  Great  Britain — Inventions — Transitory  Period 
in  Manufacture  and  Mistakes  made. 

CHAPTER  II 
HISTORICAL 

Lime  as  a  Binding  Agent — John  Smeaton  and  Building  of  Eddy- 
stone  Lighthouse,  1756  —  James  Parker's  Patent,  1796  — 
James  Frost's  Patent,  1822  —  Joseph  Aspdin's  Patent, 
1824  —  His  first  Factory,  1825  —  Major-General  Sir  C.  W. 
Pasley's  Experiments,  1826  —  W.  B.  Elkinson  patented 
Concrete,  1854 — Brunei  used  Cement  for  construction  of 
Thames  Tunnel,  1828— Sir  Robert  Peel  proposes  Tax  on 
Roman  Cement,  1845 — Brunei's  testimony  as  to  Uniformity  of 
Roman  Cement,  1889 — Robert  Stephenson's  Testimony  in 
1843 — Great  Exhibition,  1851,  gave  impetus  to  the  Industry — 
Mr.  John  Grant  in  1859  uses  Portland  Cement  for  London 
Drainage  Canal — Growth  of  the  Industry  on  Thames  and 
Medway— First  British  Standard  Specification,  1904. 

CHAPTER  III 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDUSTRY 

Rapid  Growth  of  the  Industry — Future  Development — Many  Uses 
for  Portland  Cement  —  Concrete  Age  —  Great  Engineering 
Triumphs  due  to  Concrete — Output  of  Three  Leading  Countries 
—United  States'  Huge  Production — Reason  of  the  Supremacy 
of  the  United  States — Machinery  constructed  for  Improved 
Manufacture — Great  Britain's  Position  to-day. 

CHAPTER  IV 
MANUFACTURE— RAW    MATERIALS 

Classification  of  Materials — Limestone — Chalk— Marl — Alkali  Waste 
— Clayey  Limestone — Clay — Shale — Blast  Furnace  Slag — Pro- 
portioning the  Raw  Materials — Synopsis — From  Raw  Material 
to  Portland  Cement — Composition  and  Manufacture  of  Cement 
— Processes  of  Manufacture. 


vi  THE   PORTLAND   CEMENT  INDUSTRY 

CHAPTER  V 
DESIGN    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF    A    MODERN    PORTLAND 

CEMENT    PLANT 

Investigation  by  Investors — Capacity  corresponding  to  Capital 
Invested  —  Importance  of  Consulting  Engineers  engaged 
possessing  a  thorough  practical  knowledge  of  the  Industry — 
Site — Raw  Materials — Survey  of  Quarry — Rail  and  Water 
Communication  —  Size  of  Plant  —  Simplicity  of  Design  — 
Machinery  to  be  Installed — Quarry  Practice — Big  Hole  Blasting 
Drills — Storage  of  Raw  Materials — Crushing  and  Grinding  the 
Raw  Materials  —  Crushing  —  General  Principles  —  Types  of 
Crushers — Grinding — Ball  and  Tube  Mills — Centrifugal  Mills 
—  Griffin  Mills  —  Fuller- Lehigh  Mills— Ring-Roll  Mill  — 
Capacity  of  various  Machines  used  for  Crushing,  Grinding, 
and  Conveying. 

CHAPTER  VI 
THE    ROTARY    KILN 

Development  —  Construction  —  Kiln  Lining  —  Advantages  of  the 
Rotary  Kiln — Fuel — Coal — Storage — Crushing — Grinding — 
Crude  Oil — Natural  Gas — Producer  Gas — Cooling — -Storing 
and  Grinding  the  Clinker — Dust  Collectors. 

CHAPTER  VII 
POWER    PLANTS 

Types  of  Transmission — Water  Supply — Type  of  Power  Plant — 
Choice  of  Power  Units — Boiler  Plant — Feed  Pumps — Steam 
and  Feed-water  Pipes — Superheaters. 

CHAPTER  VIII 
MISCELLANEOUS 

Storing  and  Packing  the  Cement — Cement  Storehouses — Packing 
—Wooden  Barrels — Steel  Drums — Sacks — Mechanical  Equip- 
ment— Equipment  for  Machine  Shop — Smithy — Carpenters 
and  Wheelwrights. 

CHAPTER  IX 

COSTS   AND    STATISTICS 

COSTS  OF  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  PORTLAND  CEMENT 
Cost  of  Building  and  Equipping  a  Modern  Portland  Cement  Plant 
— Approximate  Real  Investment  in  Portland  Cement  Plants  in 
the  United  States — Labour  Cost  per  Ton  of  Cement — Supplies 
— Cement  Productions  and  Shipments  in  the  United  States 
during  1913  and  1914 — Average  Factory  Price  per  Barrel- 
Systematic  Cost  Keeping — Daily  Reports — Wages  Analysis — 
Stores  Analysis — Cost  Sheet. 

CHAPTER  X 
EQUIPMENT 

Mechanical  Equipment  of  some  Modern  Portland  Cement  Plants 
erected  during  the  last  five  years. 


SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS  vii 

PHYSICAL    TESTING 

CHAPTER  XI 
DEVELOPMENT    OF    CEMENT    TESTING 

General  Notes  on  Gauging  Cement — Tests  of  Cement  required  for 
Immediate  Use — Comparative  Table  of  English  with  Metrical 
Stresses — Comparative  Table  of  English  and  Metric  Measures — 
Comparative  Table  of  English  and  Metric  Weights. 

CHAPTER  XII 
CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION 

Standard  Specification — Specific  Gravity — Tests  of  little  value  alone 
— Standard  Specification — Procedure — Personal  Equation. 

CHAPTER  XIII 
FINENESS 

Standard  Specification — Procedure — Observations  on  Fineness — 
Influence  on  Fine  Grinding  of  Cement  upon  its  Setting  Time — 
Showing  Effect  of  Fine  Grinding  of  Cement  on  Soundness — 
Showing  Increase  in  Sand  Strength  due  to  Fine  Grinding — 
Personal  Equation. 

CHAPTER  XIV 
TENSILE    STEENGTH 

Standard  Specification — Neat  Cement — Cement  and  Sand — 
Procedure — Testing  Neat  Cement — Testing  Cement  with  Three 
Times  its  Volume  of  Sand — Proportion  of  Water  for  Gauging 
Sand  Briquettes — General  Notes. 

CHAPTER  XV 
TIME    OF    SETTING 

Standard  Specification — Procedure — Effect  of  Storage  on  its  Setting 
Properties — Influence  of  various  Percentages  of  Water  used  to 
gauge  the  Pats  on  the  Setting  Time — Influence  of  Temperature 
on  the  Rate  of  Setting — Influence  of  Ageing  on  the  Set — 
Showing  the  Effect  of  Plaster  of  Paris  on  the  Setting — The 
Effect  of  Gypsum  on  the  Setting  Time — The  Effect  of  Dead 
Burned  Gypsum  on  the  Setting  Time — Personal  Equation. 

CHAPTER  XVI 
SOUNDNESS    OB    CONSTANCY    OF    VOLUME 

Normal  Tests — Accelerated  Tests — Standard  Specification — Le 
Chatelier  Test — Procedure — Other  Tests  for  Soundness — Faija 
Test— Deval  Test— Boiling  Test— Cold  Water  Pats— Plunge 
Pat  Test— The  Bottle  Test— Air  Pat  Test. 


LIST    OF     ILLUSTKATIONS 

PLATE  PAGE 

I.     Steam  Shovel  excavating  material  for  a  Portland  Cement 

Plant 16 

II.  Showing  the  usefulness  of  the  Crane  Navvy  in  quarry 
work.  The  machine  at  the  top  is  removing  the  top 
soil  or  overburden,  and  the  machine  in  the  bottom  is 
excavating  the  mineral,  which  in  this  case  is  chalk 
for  making  cement 16 

III.  Cyclone  Drill 18 

IV.  Big  Blast  Hole  Drills  in  operation         ....       18 
V.     Steam  Crane  for  Circular  Coal  Storage  System  (20  ft. 

gauge,  80  ft.  radius,  2  ton  bucket,  80,000  tons  storage 

capacity) 20 

VI.     Newell's  Swinging  Jaw  Crusher    .....  22 

VII.     Gyratory  Crusher 22 

VIII.     Gyratory  Crusher  (Sectional  View)        ....  22 

T^    (Reciprocating  Jaw  Crusher)  99 

M  I  Horizontal  Eoll  Crusher      )" 

x    /Gyratory  Crusher                               )  ^ 

"   I  Gyratory  Crusher  (Sectional  View)  / 

^T    /Disc  Crusher                                ^  99 

'  \Disc  Crusher  (Sectional  View)  j  ', 

XII.     Battery  of  Ball  Mills  (Allis  Chalmers  Co.)      ...  24 

XIII.     Battery  of  Tube  Mills  (Allis  Chalmers  Co.)    .         .«.     .  24 

/Newell's  Lion  Ball  Mill  \ 
'  \Edgar  Allen's  Tube  Mill/ 

XV.     Newell's  Chamber  Grinding  Mill 24 

XVI.     Transverse  Section  of  Gates'  Ball  Mill  (Allis  Chalmers  Co.)  24 

XVII.     Riveted  Tube  Mill .  24 

XVIII.     Composite  Frame  Griffin  Mill  (Sectional  View)     .         .  26 
XIX.     The  40  in.  Giant  Griffin  Mill         .         .         .         .         .26 

XX.     Bradley  Three-Roll  Mill 28 

XXI.     The  Fuller-Lehigh  Pulverizer  Mill  (42  in.  Fan  Discharge 

Type) 30 

xxn  (Ring-Roll  Mill  1 

'  \Ring-Roll  Mill  (accessibility)/ 

XXIII.  Ring-Roll  Mill  (Description  and  Operation)  ...  32 

XXIV.  Ring-Roll  (Description  and  Operation)  ....  32 
XXV.     Cement  Grinding  Unit  for  Rotary  and  Chamber  Clinker  32 

b 


THE   PORTLAND   CEMENT  INDUSTRY 


PLATE 
XXVI.     A  Double  Sturtevant-Newaygo  Screen  in  action    . 

XXVII.     Edgar  Allen's  Kotary  Kiln 

XXVIII.     Edgar  Allen's  Eotary  Clinker  Cooler     . 
XXIX.     Johnson's  Rotary  Kiln  and  Cooler         . 
XXX.     Intermittent  Kiln  erected  by  William  Aspdin  at  North- 
fleet,  Kent 

XXXI.     Battery  of  Continuous  Shaft  Kilns         . 
XXXII.     Newell's  Double-Tube  Coal  Dryer          . 

XXXIII.  A  Battery  of  Eotary  Kilns  equipped  with  Aero  Pulverizers 

XXXIV.  Aero  Pulverizer 

XXXV.     "  Steel  Plate  "  Dust-Collecting  Fan        . 

/A  Six-section  Air  Filterl 
\Dust  Collector  /      ' 


FIG. 


PHYSICAL    TESTING 

Schumann's  Apparatus  for  Specific  Gravity 

The  Vicat  Needle          .... 

Enlarged  view  of  Needle  "  A  " 

Gilmore  Needles  mounted  on  Stand 

The  Le  Chatelier  Gauge 

Faija  Soundness  Test  Apparatus  . 


-Showing  samples  of  Test  Pats 


PAGE 
32 
39 
41 
42 

44 
44 
44 
46 
46 
50 

50 


127 
140 
141 
143 
149 
150 


152 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTORY 

THE  statistics  of  the  production  of  Portland  Cement,  the  most 
important  non-metallic  constructive  material  used  by  the  engineer 
at  the  present  time,  show  that  throughout  the  world  this  industry 
ranks  among  the  first  eight  extractive  industries,  being  exceeded 
in  importance  only  by  coal,  pig  iron,  petroleum,  clay  products, 
copper,  gold,  and  stone. 

Although  the  cement  industry  has  expanded  with  great 
rapidity,  Great  Britain,  the  home  of  the  industry,  has  not  main- 
tained its  position.  For  a  time,  now  definable,  Germany  passed 
it  in  the  race,  and  now  the  United  States  stands  asi  the  unrivalled 
giant  of  the  cement  world. 

^The  remarkable  results  accomplished  in  the  United  States 
are  directly  due  to  the  untiring  efforts  and  whole-hearted  co- 
operation of  the  Association  of  American  Portland  Cement 
Manufacturers,  formed  in  1902,  and  of  the  National  Association 
of  Cement  Users,  formed  about  the  same  time.  These  Associa- 
tions continue  to  do  valuable  work  for  this  great  industry  by 
promoting  and  encouraging-  technical  research,  statistical 
committees,  uniform  specification,  and  publicity.)  The  best  of 
the  knowledge  and  experience  at  their  command  has  been  placed 
unselfishly  and  ungrudgingly  at  the  disposal  of  all  ;  and  this 
enlightened  and  progressive  policy  has  been  fully  justified  by 
the  wonderful  developments  which  have  ensued.  These  facts 
are  very  significant,  and  present  to  the  British  manufacturer 
a  vitally  important  lesson,  which  he  would  do  well  to  take  to  heart. 

The  cement  industry  in  Great  Britain  to-day  affords  ample 
scope  for  the  adoption  of  new  methods  and  more  modern 
machinery  ;  and  a  special  need  exists  for  additional  State 
assistance  for  the  promotion  and  organization  of  scientific  research, 
with  a  view  to  increased  economy  and  efficiency  in  the  processes 
of  manufacture. 

The  author  himself  has  been  largely  concerned  in  the 
modernizing  of  British  cement  factories,  and  up  to  within  a  few 
years  most  of  the  machinery  came  from  Germany,  as  no  British 
firm  was  prepared  entirely  to  equip  works  with  plant  embodying 
the  new  designs!,  although  there  were  firms  who  could  supply 
certain  parts.  It  is  gratifying  to  note  that  this  unsatisfactory, 
state  of  things  no  longer  exists  ;  and  the  author,  out  of  his 
lengthy  experience,  can  confidently  assert  that  British  cement 


2  THE    POliTLAN'D    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

machinery  can  now  challenge  comparison  with  anything  of  the 
kind  manufactured  in  Germany.  Much,  however,  remains  to  be 
accomplished  in  the  designing  of  Portland  Cement  machinery 
in  this  country  to  bring  it  to  the  same  standard  of  efficiency  that 
is  now  prevailing  in  the  United  States,  especially  where  crystalline 
raw  materials  are  used  ;  and  it  behoves  British  cement 
manufacturers  to  study  closely  the  American  methods  of  crushing 
and  handling  the  hard  materials. 

In  the  United  States  the  man  with  ideas  receives  every 
encouragement  and  assistance  ;  consequently,  in  spite  of  failures, 
progress  is  rapid.  In  Great  Britain,  wrhere  established  procedure 
is  clung  to  like  a  fetish,  the  inventor  is  apt  to  be  regarded  as 
a  'crank  and  a  nuisance/ ;  at  any  rate,  in  a  'soil  of  greater  caution 
and  conservatism  his  ideas  do  not  so  readily  take  root,  and  so 
the  industry  suffers. 

During  recent  years  it  has  been,  and  is  still,  necessary  to 
face  a  period  of  transition  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland  Cement. 
Of  necessity,  changes  have  had  to  be  made  in  power  plant  in  the 
class  of  machinery  to  be  installed  to  suit  a  particular  material,  in 
increasing  the  output  of  machines,  and  in  the  general  lay  out,  in 
order  to  lessen  the  cost  of  production.  Some  have  profited  by 
the  mistakes  of  others,  some  by  their  own,  some  by  neither. 
Under-estimation  has  been  a  frequent  pitfall,  and  foreign 
competition  has  been  fierce.  It  will  become  increasingly  so,  and  to 
help  his  fellow-countrymen  to  meet  it  is  the  desire  of  the  author. 


CHAPTER  II 
HISTORICAL 

FROM  very  earliest  times  lime  has  been  the  fundamental  ingre- 
dient in  cementitious  building  materials.  It  is  only  within  the 
ia&t  150  years,  however,  that  the  value  of  an  admixture  of 
argillaceous  substances  with  lime  has  been  fully  recognized  in 
the  production  of  a  strong,  reliable  binding  agent. 

Mr.  John  Smeaton  in  1756,  when  seeking  the  most  suitable 
material  to  use  in  the  building  of  the  Eddystone  Lighthouse, 
demonstrated  the  fact  that  limestone  containing  clay,  when  burned 
and  ground,  possessed  the  property  of  hardening  under  water.  It 
was  not  until  1791,  however,  that  he  published  the  results  of  these 
experiments.  Several  patent  specifications  were  taken  out  at 
various  times  prior  to  this.  In  1796  a  James  Parker,  described 
as  of  "  Northfleet  in  the  County  of  Kent,  Gentleman  ",  took  out 
a  patent  for  a  "  certain  cement  or  terras  (trass)  to  be  used  in 
acquatic  and  other  buildings  and  stucco  work  ",  and  some  years 
afterwards  General  Pasley  applied  to  this  material  the  name  of 
"Roman  Cement". 

The  first  specification  of  any  great  practical  importance  which 
appeared  for  many  years  afterwards  was  when  in  1822  James 
Frost  obtained  a  patent  for  the  manufacture  of  "  a  new  cement  or 
artificial  stone",  which  he  designated  "British  Cement".  It 
may  be  questioned  whether  Frost,  in  drawing  up  this  specifica- 
tion, had  a  thorough  grasp  of  the  chemistry  of  bis  subject,  as 
a  material  free  from  any  admixture  of  alumina,  but  containing 
from  9  to  40  per  cent  of  silica,  would  probably  have  poor 
cementitious  properties. 

Joseph  Aspdin,  a  bricklayer  of  Leeds,  first  gave  the  name 
"  Portland "  to  a  cement  produced  according  to  a  specification 
protected  in  October,  1824.  The  name  was  probably  suggested  on 
account  of  the  close  resemblance  of  the  product,  when  set,  to 
the  well-known  building-stone  quarried  at  Portland  on  the  south 
coast  of  Dorsetshire.  A  noteworthy  point  in  this  specification  is, 
that  although  the  process  of  manufacture  as  carried  out  to-day 
is  very  different,  yet  in  those  early  days  Aspdin  recognized  the 
importance  of  a  thorough  amalgamation  of  his  raw  materials  by 
mixing  them  "to  a  state  approaching  impalpability". 

He  does  not  appear  to  have  calcined  his  mixture  to  a  point 
of  incipient  fusion,  as  has  since  been  recognized  to  be  necessary, 
nor  does  he  specify  the  proportion  of  raw  materials  to  be  used. 
It  is  probable  that  Aspdin,  knowing  little  or  nothing  of  chemistry 


4        THE  PORTLAND  CEMENT  INDUSTRY 

and  guided  only  by  empirical  rules,  was  able  by  virtue  of  his 
long  experience  to  produce  a  cement  of  a  fairly  reliable 
character. 

In  1825  he  established  a  factory  at  Wakefield,  where  he 
produced  this  cement.  These  original  works  were  destroyed  when 
the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Bailway  was  constructed,  but 
another  was  erected  on  a  site  not  very  far  from  the 
original  works,  and  this  still  exists  and  was  working  until 
recently.  Aspdin  was  born  in  1779,  and  died  on  March  20,  1855. 

In  1826  Major-General  Sir  C.  W.  Pasley,  Lecturer  on 
Architecture,  etc.,  at  the  Military  School  at  Chatham,  after 
experiments  and  research  work  at  Chatham  Dockyard  succeeded 
in  1830  in  producing  very  good  cement  from  Medway  Clay  and 
the  chalk  found  in  the  neighbourhood. 

The  more  general  use  of  cement  in  buildings  caused  factories 
to  be  erected  for  its  manufacture  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
including  works  at  Faversham,  in  Kent,  by  Mr.  Samuel  Sheppard 
in '1816  ;  those  o'f  Messrs.  Francis  &  White  (afterwards  Messrs. 
Francis  &  Son)  at  Nine  Elms  ;  those  of  Frosts  on  the  Thames  at 
Swanscombe,  Kent;  and  those  of  I.  C.  Johnson  at  Gateshead.  The 
Gateshead  works  are  interesting  from  the  fact  that  it  was  probably 
with  cement  from  these  works  that  W.  B.  Elkinson,  the  Newcastle  - 
on-Tyne  plasterer,  obtained  the  experience  in  making  concrete 
that  led  him  to  take  out  his  patent  of  1854,  under  which  he  covered 
the  construction  of  reinforced  concrete  floors  and  beams. 

In  the  early  days  of  its  manufacture  Portland  Cement  appears 
to  have  been  mainly  used  for  stucco  work,  but  owing  to  the 
irregular  and  uncertain  results  obtained  it  was  not  much  in  favour 
with  engineers  for  constructive  purposes.  As  early  as  1828, 
however,  Brunei  obtained  cement  from  Aspdin's  works  at  Wake- 
field  for  use  in  the  construction  of  the  Thames  Tunnel.  In  1845 
Sir  Robert  Peel  proposed  to  tax  Roman  Cement  under  the 
mistaken  assumption  that  the  supplies  would  become  exhausted, 
and  when  Aspdin  convinced  the  illustrious  commoner  of  his 
mistake  the  proposal  was  abandoned. 

Brunei,  when  constructing  the  Thames  Tunnel  in  1839,  gave 
a  testimonial  as  to  Roman  Cement  being  extremely  uniform  in 
quality,  and  on  every  occasion  up  to  his  expectation.  Robert 
Stephenson,  in  1843,  writing  with  regard  to  the  use  of  cement  in 
the  construction  of  tunnels,  pointed  out  that  its  excellence  was 
sufficiently  demonstrated  by  the  state  of  the  works  several  years 
afterwards. 

It  was  just  after  this  period  that  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  Portland  Cement  brought  it  more  into  favour  and 
led  to  the  gradual  displacement  of  Roman  Cement,  although  the 
latter,  being  particularly  suited  to  some  purposes,  continues  to 
be  manufactured. 


HISTORICAL  5 

In  the  great  Exhibition  of  1851,  in  Hyde  Park,  some  tests  were 
made  with  briquettes,  and  the  strain  of  neat  Portland  Cement  was 
found  to  equal  414 Ib.  per  square  inch.  This  Exhibition  un- 
doubtedly gave  greater  impetus  to  the  industry,  and  in  1859 
'Mr.  John  Grant,  Engineer  to  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works, 
decided  to  use  Portland  Cement  in  the  construction  of  the  London 
Drainage  Canal,  and  published  his  reasons  for  so  doing  in  the 
transactions  of  the  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers. 

Other  factories  were  rapidly  established  in  the  districts  of 
the  Thames  and  Medway,  where  the  presence  of  ample  supplies  of 
chalk  and  alluvial  clay  offered  strong  inducements. 

The  British  manufacturer  was  for  many  years  severely  handi- 
capped in  his  efforts  to  improve  the  product  by  the  custom  which 
existed  of  every  engineer  drawing  up  his  own  specification  for 
cement,  a  requirement  specified  in  one  clause  often  rendering  the 
stipulations  of  another  impossible  of  fulfilment,  owing  to  the  lack 
of  knowledge  of  details  of  its  manufacture. 

To-day  that  difficulty  has  largely  disappeared  as  a  result  of 
the  publication  in  December,  1904,  of  the  "  British  Standard 
Specification "  for  Portland  Cement.  This  specification  is 
generally  adopted  and  gives  satisfaction,  although  as  a  result  of 
experience  it  has  been  found  advisable  to  revise  it  in  certain 
details,  and  revised  editions  have  appeared  in  June,  1907,  August, 
1910,  and  March,  1915. 


CHAPTER  III 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    INDUSTRY 

THE  rapidity  of  the  growth  of  the  Portland  Cement  industry 
is  one  of  the  most  important  features  of  the  world's  engineering 
progress.  Yet  although  its  developments  appear  wonderful  and 
manufacturing  equipments  complete,  the  possibilities  in  the 
direction  of  cement  production  cannot  be  estimated  by,  the 
scientist.  He  has  only  the  assurance  that  his  work  is  surely 
helping  to  build  up  and  to  consolidate  what  is  destined  to  be  a 
supremely  powerful  factor  in  the  world's  progress. 

Every  year  more  of  this  indispensable  building  material  is 
being  used,  and  the  growth  in  its  use  during  the  past  decade  is 
an  indication  of  the  high  position  which  it  has  attained  in  the 
business  world  of  to-day.  Those  who  have  most  closely  followed 
the  history  and  development  of  the  industry  look  forward  con- 
fidently to  a  greatly  increased  consumption  and  to  a  large  addition 
to  the  variety  of  its  uses. 

It  already  enters  into  the  composition  of  at  least  five  hundred 
different  articles  and  types  of  construction.  While  its  principal 
and  most  common  use  is  in  street  and  highway  paving,  in  the 
construction  of  canals,  docks,  piers,  wharves,  tunnels,  buildings, 
bridges,  retaining  walls,  and  the  like,  a  stage  of  development  in 
its  use  has  been  reached  when  it  is  as  efficient  for  drain-tiling  as 
for  bridges,  for  the  erection  of  statues  and  other  ornamental 
work  as  for  canals,  for  water  troughs  as  for  street  pavement,  and 
for  fence  posts  as  for  silos. 

Far-seeing  captains  of  industry  have  predicted  that  "  the  steel 
age"  through  which  the  world"s  civilized  life  is  passing  will 
give  place  to  a  concrete  period.  Most  of  the  greatest  engineering- 
triumphs  of  modern  times,  such  as,  for  example,  the  Nile  Dam 
at  Assouan,  the  Barrage  at  Assiout,  and  the  Panama  Canal,  have 
been  rendered  possible  only  by  the  extensive  use  of  Portland 
Cement  concrete. 

In  this,  as  in  so  many  other  fields  of  commercial  activity, 
America  is  pre-eminent.  Only  twelve  years  ago  Mr.  R.  W. 
Leslie,  Assoc.  Am.  Soc.  C.B.,  in  a  paper  read  to  the  International 
Engineering  Congress  at  St.  Louis,  predicted  that  the  Portland 
Cement  industry  in  U.S.A.  would  take  rank  with  the  great 
manufacturing  interests,  and  exceed  the  output  of  any  other 
country  in  the  world.  In  1913  the  three  largest  producing 
countries  were  Great  Britain,  with  3,000,000  tons  ;  Germany,  with 
5,000,000  tons  ;  and  U.S.A.,  with  15,348;000  tons. 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    INDUSTRY  7 

This  output  was  due  to  £he  new  processes  of  manufacture 
adopted,  and  now  practised  everywhere,  to  the  scientific  reputa- 
tion of  its  quality,  and  to  the  commercial  brilliance  with  which 
the  trade  in  American  Portland  Cement  has  been  developed. 

Perfection  of  treatment  and  reliability  of  quality  can  only  bo 
reached  from  the  result  of  keen  scientific  research  and  practical 
experience,  two  essential  features  in  the  manufacture  of  the'  com- 
modity for  to-day's  market.  Without  doubt  architects  and 
engineers  fully  realize  and  appreciate  the  efforts  of  manufacturers 
in  producing  a  Portland  Cement  which  may  be  used  with  absolute 
safety  not  only  for  the  benefit  of  their  own  but  future  generations. 

Many  lesser  industries  have  been  established  in  order  to  supply 
the  needs  of  the  manufacturers  of  cement,  and  competition  in 
the  type  and  construction  of  machinery  for  all  processes  of  cement- 
making,  from  quarry  to  stock-house,  has  enabled  manufacturers 
to  overcome  difficulties  in  both  the  raw  and  clinker  stages.  Much, 
however,  remains  to  ibe  accomplished  before  Great  Britain  is 
able  to  regain  her  position  in  the  Portland  Cement  world  and 
hold  it  against  all  comers,  but  to  ensure  success  there  must  be 
complete  understanding  and  co-operation  between  manufacturers 
of  cement-making  machinery  and  the  manufacturers  of  cement. 


CHAPTER  IV 
MANUFACTURE 

RAW  MATERIALS 

Portland  Cement  can  be  produced  from  any  raw  materials 
containing  constituents  capable  of  yielding  by  calcination  the 
silicates  and  aluminates  of  lime  which  form  its  chief  components, 
and  the  necessary  constituents  of  these  raw  materials  are  lime, 
silica,  and  alumina. 

The  raw  materials  employed  may  be  classed  under  two  heads  : 
(1)  Calcareous,  (2)  Argillaceous,  according  as  the  lime  or  silica 
and  alumina  predominate. 

Calcareous  :    Limestone,  marl,  chalk,  alkali  waste. 
Argillaceous  :  Clayey  limestone,  clay,  shale,  blast-furnace  slag. 

Limestone 

Limestone  is  largely  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime.  It  some- 
times contains  carbonate  of  magnesia,  and  when  this  reaches 
45  per  cent  of  the  total  carbonates  it  is  known  as  dolomitje. 

Limestone  to  be  suitable  for  cement  manufacture  should  not 
contain  more  than  4  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  magnesia. 

Chalk 

Chalk  consists  of  almost  pure  carbonate  of  lime,  an  excellent 
cement-making  material,  being  crushed  and  pulverized  easily. 

Marl 

Marl  is  more  or  less  a  pure  carbonate  of  lime.  White  marls 
are  usually  free  from  organic  matter,  but  the  grey  marls  contain 
5  to  10  per  cent  of  impurities. 

It  is  also  an  excellent  material  to  pulverize,  being  soft  and 
friable. 

Alkali  Waste 

Alkali  waste  is  a  by-product  from  the  processes  used  at  alkali 
works  in  the  manufacture  of  caustic  soda.  It  is  a  fine-grained 
soft  and  pure  form  of  lime  carbonate  ;  from  certain  processes 
it  contains  large  percentages  of  sulphur,  which  render  it  unfit 
for  the  manufacture  of  Portland  Cement. 

Clayey  Limestone 

Clayey  limestone,  known  in  the  United  States  of  America 
as  "Cement  Rock"  when  containing  50  to  80  per  cent  of  lime 
carbonate  and  not  more  than  4  per  cent  of  magnesium  carbonate, 


MANUFACTURE  9 

is  an  ideal  material  for  Portland  Cement  manufacture  ;  it  is 
considerably  softer  than  pure  limestone,  consequently  more  easily 
crushed  and  pulverized. 

Clay 

Clays  are  essentially  chemical  compounds,  containing  silica, 
alumina,  oxide  of  iron,  lime,  magnesia,  sulphuric  anhydride,  and 
alkalies. 

Shale 

Shale  may  be  considered  merely  a  solidified  clay,  since  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  two  are  similar. 

Blast-Furnace  Slag 

Blast-furnace  slag-  is  a  by-product  from  iron  furnaces.  It 
consists  essentially  of  lime,  silica,  and  alumina,  with  small  per- 
centages of  iron  oxide  and  magnesia. 

Proportioning  the  Raw  Materials 

Firstly. — All  these  deposits  must  be  subjected  to  various 
processes  of  amalgamation  to  bring  them  within  the  limits  of 
the  chemical  composition  so  vital  for  the  production  of  a  well- 
balanced  volume  constant  Portland  Cement. 

The  exact  proportions  required  are  determined  by  the  actual 
chemical  composition  of  the  materials  combined,  since  each  of 
the  ingredients  as  found  in  nature,  or  as  a  result  of  some  process 
of  manufacture,  includes  a  certain  proportion  of  the  other 
principal  ingredient,  together  with  various  foreign  materials 
which  are  not  essential  to  the  manufacture  of  cement. 

Secondly. — The  importance  of  the  fine  grinding  of  the 
materials  is  the  greatest  factor  in  producing  a  sound  cement^- 
in  fact,  90  to  95  per  cent  of  the  mixture  should  pass  through  a 
gieve  having  32,400  holes  per  square  inch. 

Composition  of  Mixture. — A  Portland  Cement  mixture,  when 
ready  for  burning,  should  contain  about  75  per  cent  of  lime 
carbonate  (Ca  C  03)  and  about  20  per  cent  silica  (Si  02),  alumina 
(Alo  O3),  and  iron  oxide  (Fe2  O3)  together,  the  remaining  5  per 
cent  containing  only  magnesia,  sulphur,  and  alkalies  tha.t  may 
be  present. 

These  substances  are  obtainable  in  the  large  range  of  choice 
of  raw  materials  before  mentioned. 

Good  commercial  cements  should  have  the  following  limits 
of  these  ingredients  : — 

Silica 20-5  per  cent. 

Alumina 4-8 

Oxide  of  iron        ....  2-5 

Lime  ......  60-7 

Magnesia     .....  0-2 

Sulphuric  anhydride    .         .         .  0-2 


10  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

SYNOPSIS  OF  MANUFACTURE  FROM  THE  RAW  MATERIAL  TO 

PORTLAND  CEMENT 
Quarry  (Mechanical  Process) 

The  initial  step  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland  Cement  is 
the  excavation  of  the  raw  materials. 

Crushing,  Grinding,  and  Mixing  of  Haw  Materials 

(Mechanical  Process) 

The  second  step  is  the  thorough  crushing-,  grinding,  and 
mixing  of  the  raw  materials  to  such  fineness  that  90  to  95  per 
cent  of  the  mixture  will  pass  through  a  sieve  having  32,400 
holes  per  square  inch. 

The  Burning  of  the  Raw  Materials  to  Incipient  Fusion 

(Chemical  Process) 

The  third  step  is  the  calcination  of  the  raw  materials  and 
chemical  section  of  the  manufacture,  for  the  water  present 
naturally  in  the  raw  materials  and  that  added  for  mixing  purposes 
are  evaporated,  after  which  it  reaches  a  temperature  where  all 
organic  matter  from  the  clay  and  carbonic  anhydride  (C  02)  from 
the  carbonate  of  lime  is  expelled  in  the  form  of  gas,  and  lastly 
it  reaches  that  zone  of  the  kiln,  the  temperature  being 
2,600  degrees  to  3,000  degrees  F.,  where  the  chemical  com- 
bination of  the  lime  with  the  silica  and  alumina  of  the  cloy 
takes  place,  producing  Portland  Cement  clinker. 

Cooling  and  Grinding  the  Clinker 
(Mechanical  Process) 

The  fourth  and  final  step  is  the  cooling  and  grinding  of  the 
clinker.  The  heat  from  the  clinker  is  extracted  by  passing 
through  a  rotary  cooler  situated  immediately  under  the  kiln, 
and  is  carried  back  to  the  kiln  by  the  incoming  air  to  the  zone 
of  combustion. 

The  clinker  is  now  reduced  to  a  coarse  powder  by  a 
preliminary  grinder  and  ground  to  the  required  fineness 
in"  a  finishing  mill,  and  is  so  fine  that  90  to  95  per  cent  of  the) 
product  will  pass  through  a  sieve  having  32,400  holes  per  square 
inch,  and  is  now  Portland  Cement. 

COMPOSITION  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  CEMENT 
Definition  :   British  Standard  Specification 
The    cement  shall   be   manufactured    by  intimately   mixing 
together  calcareous  and  argillaceous  materials,  burning  them  at 
a  clinkering  temperature  and  grinding  the  resulting  clinker. 

No  addition  of  lany  material  shall  be  made  after  burning,  other 
than  calcium  sulphate,  or  water,  or  both,  and  then  only  if  desired 
by  the  vendor,  and  not  prohibited  in  writing  by  the  purchaser. 


MANUFACTURE  11 

Definition  :  American  Standard  Specification 
This  term  is  applied  to  the  finely  pulverized  product  resulting 
from  the  calcination  to  incipient  fusion  of  an  intimate  mixture 
of  properly  proportioned  argillaceous  and  calcareous  materials, 
and  to  which  no  addition  greater  than  3  per  cent  has  been  made 
subsequent  to  calcination. 

Definition  :    German  Standard  Specification 

Portland  Cement  is  a  product  made  by  an  intimate  mixing 
of  finely  ground  calcareous  and  argillaceous  materials  or 
calcareous  and  argillaceous  silicates  burnt  to  incipient  fusion  and 
ground  to  flour.  An  addition  of  3  per  cent  of  calcium  sulphate 
is  allowed  to  regulate  the  setting  time  subsequent  to  calcination. 

So  the  distinguishing  feature  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland 
Cement  is  the  heating  of  the  raw  materials  j:o  incipient  fusion 
or  clinkering  temperature.  The  importance  of  fine  grinding 
of  the  raw  materials  is  at  once  apparent,  perfect  chemical  com- 
bination can  only  take  place  when  the  necessary  materials  are 
in  the  finest  possible  state  of  subdivision,  and  the  clinker  produced 
from  the  rotary  kiln  is  so  compact  and  stable  that  it  may  be 
kept  for  long  periods  exposed  to  a  moist  atmosphere  without  any 
signs  of  disintegration  ;  whereas  clinker  produced  from  the  same- 
raw  materials  by  older  methods  is  always  subject  more  or  less 
to  breaking  down  of  the  pieces  when  exposed  to  the  air  for  any 
length  of  time. 

This  phenomenon  is  probably  due  to  the  presence  of  some 
less  stable  compounds  produced  at  various  temperatures  owing  to 
the  difficulty  of  obtaining*  an  equable  distribution  of  heat  in 
the  intermittent  kiln. 

When  the  clinker  is  ground  to  a  fine  powder  and  mixed  with 
water  chemical  action  takes  place,  and  a  hard  mass  is  formed. 
This  change  from  the  plastic  to  the  solid  state  of  the  cement) 
mortar  is  termed  "setting",  after  which  a  gradual  increase  in 
cohesive  strength  is  acquired  and  known  as  "hardening". 

Cements  usually  require  from  six  months  to  a  year  to  give 
their  full  strength. 

WET  AND  DRY  PROCESSES  OF  MANUFACTURE 

Unquestionably,  the  greatest  controversy  amongst  modern 
cement  manufacturers  ranges  round  the  question  of  the  mixing  of 
the  raw  materials.  One  school  advocates  the  wet  method  as  being 
the  most  efficient  and  likely  to  ensure  the  most  uniform  product, 
whilst  others  will,  for  precisely  the  same  reasons,  advocate  the 
dry  method. 

Everyone    is    agreed,    however,    that    the    main    factors    in 


12  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

determining  which  is  preferable  are  the  quality  of  the  product 
and  the  cost  of  production. 

Hitherto  it  has  been  the  general  practice  to  adopt  without 
question  the  dry  process,  where  crystalline  limestone  was  used. 
Now,  the  amount  of  moisture  contained  in  the  limestone  ranges 
from  J  to  3  per  cent,  and  in  clay  from!  1  to  30  per  cent.  This 
necessitates  the  drying  of  the  materials  to  ensure  economical 
grinding  and  mixing. 

On  the  other  hand,  no  one  would  dream  of  adopting  the 
dry  process  where  the  materials  are  soft  and  of  such  a  nature 
that  they  can,  /by  the  (addition  of  water,  be  ground  to  the  necessary 
fineness,  say,  about  8  per  cent  residue  in  ISO2  mesh,  the  resultant 
slurry  containing  from  40  per  cent  to  42  per  cent  of  moisture, 
and  being  easily  capable  of  being  pumped  to  storage  mixing 
tanks  ready  for  the  kilns. 

It  is  a  significant  fact,  however,  that  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe  and  in  the  United  States,  where  the  dry  process  was 
previously  general,  several  modern  plants  have  adopted  the  wet 
method  of  preparation. 

The  quality  of  wet  and  dry  made  cements  may  be  considered 
equal,  provided  they  are  both  properly  prepared,  that  is,  ground 
sufficiently  finely  and  evenly  mixed. 

Suppose,  therefore,  we  have  in  the  dry  process  a  perfect 
mixture.  The  important  question  is  :  Can  that  perfect  mixture 
of  carbonate  of  lime  (Oa  C03),  silica,  (Si  02),  and'  alumina 
(A12  O's)  be  maintained  in  its  passage  through  the  rotary  kiln 
to  the  zone  of  calcination,  and  especially  so  when  the  carbonic 
gas  (C  02)  has  been  driven  off  from  the  carbonate  of  lime,  thereby 
rendering  the  free  lime  very  susceptible  to  the  scattering  influence 
of  the  strong  draught  of  the  rotary  kiln. 

•Now,  despite  the  investigations  of  some  of  our  most  noted 
scientists,  the  chemistry  of  Portland  Cement  is  far  from  being 
thoroughly  understood.  Nevertheless,  the  safe  limits  of  the 
essential  ingredients  are  well  known.  Assuming  that  three 
molecules  of  lime  are  united  to  one  of  silica  to  form  the  tricalcium 
silicate,  and  that  two  or  three  molecules  of  lime  are  united  to 
one  of  alumina  to  form  the  dicalcium  or  tricalcium  aluminate, 
it  necessarily  follows  that  this  perfect  mixture  of  lime,  silica, 
and  alumina  must  be  assured,  not  only  at  the  commencement,  but 
maintained  to  the  zone  of  calcination  if  a  sound  mixture  is  to  be 
the  result. 

What  is  the  result  ?  Extra  expense  is  incurred  through  the 
necessity  of  watering  the  clinker  and  providing  large  store- 
houses for  "  ageing "  it  in  order  to  produce  the  requisite 
soundness. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  wet  process  we  have  an  equally 
perfect  mixture  of  raw  materials,  but  being  in  the  form  of  slurry 


MANUFACTURE  13 

it  is  obvious  the  particles  cannot  in  any  way  be  affected  by  the 
strong  draught  of  the  rotary  kiln,  since  the  whole  is  first  in  a 
fluid  mass,  then  in  the  plastic  condition  as  the  moisture  is  driven 
off,  and  finally  in  small  friable  balls,  which  easily  crumble  to 
powder  a  few  feet  from  the  zone  of  fusion  ;  consequently  a  more 
regular  product  is  obtained,  free  lime  is  practically  absent,  and 
"ageing"  is  therefore  not  necessary. 

Tests  of  cement  from  clinker  ground  direct  from  the  cooler 
after  the  usual  twenty-four  hours  aeration  have  proved  absolutely 
volume-constant  using  the  wet  process. 

It  has  been  argued  that  the  fuel  consumption  is  much  larger 
in  the  wet  process  than  in  the  dry,  but  the  advent  of  long  kilns, 
measuring  from  200  to  250  feet  and  from  8  to  10  feet  in  diameter, 
has  quite  disposed  of  this  argument.  Indeed,  if  we  take  into 
consideration  the  amount  of  coal  used  in  the  latter  process  to  dry 
the  materials  the  balance  would  almost  certainly  be  in  favour  of 
the  wet  process.  At  well-known  works  in  Great  Britain  a  ton 
of  cement  can  be  burnt  with  27  to  30  per  cent  of  coal  of  average 
calorific  value,  as  received  at  the  works  ;  after  drying  it  would 
average  about  25  per  cent. 

Further,  the  cost  of  the  wet  plant  is,  without  question,  much 
lower  than  that  of  the  dry,  whilst  the  amount  of  labour  required 
is  also  considerably  less.  No  rotary  driers  are  required.  There 
are  no  bins  for  the  reception  of  the  ground  raw  materials  over 
the  finishing  mills,  and  all  the  attendant  complicated  system  of 
conveyors,  elevators,  and  automatic  scales  can  be  dispensed  with. 

The  process,  too,  is  much  simpler  in  the  wet  method.  The 
raw  materials  can  be  proportioned  volumetrically  before  the 
grinding  mills,  whence  the  thick  slurry  is  gravitated  or  pumped 
into  large  reservoirs,  each  capable  of  holding  sufficient  to  make 
600  tons  of  cement,  and  in  these  it  is  kept  in  a  constant  state  of 
agitation  to  avoid  settling. 

These  tanks  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  chemist,  who 
does  not  make  use  of  the  slurry  for  calcination  purposes  till  he 
is  satisfied  that  it  is  of  correct  proportion.  When  this 
standardizing  is  complete  the  mixture  has  simply  to  be  pumped 
into  the  rotary  kiln. 


CHAPTER  V 

DESIGN    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF    A    MODERN 
PORTLAND    CEMENT    PLANT 

THE  design  and  construction  of  a  modern  Portland  Cement 
plant  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  investors  and  manu- 
facturers, and  should  be  the  subject  of  much  deliberation  and 
investigation  before  being  undertaken. 

The  question  of  factory,  its  process,  equipment,  capacity,  and 
quality  of  cement  it  will  produce,  is  of  vital  importance. 

To  ensure  a  good  earning  power,  a  Portland  Cement  factory 
must  first  of  all  have  capacity  corresponding  with  the  capital 
invested  ;  it  must  be  equipped  with  machinery  that  is  certain  to 
do  its  work  from  year  to  year  without  trouble  and  annoyance, 
and  the  process  of  manufacture  must  be  one  that  will  ensure 
a  uniform  high-grade  cement. 

Business  men  building  a  cement  plant  should  see  that  the 
engineers  engaged  to  design,  construct,  and  equip  a  plant  are 
those  who  have  gained  their  knowledge  after  years  of  practical 
experience  in  cement-making,  and  not  those  who  have  visited 
a  few  cement  works  in  Great  Britain  and  Europe,  gleaning 
information  from  owners  and  managers  that  often  proves  very 
expensive  to  those  who  have  speculated  in  cement,  causing  them 
disappointment  and  regret  at  having  interested  themselves  in  the 
industry. 

Many  estimates  of  engineers  have  come  very  wide  of  the 
mark,  and  plants  have  been  turned  over  to  the  owners  by  engineers 
erecting  them,  only  for  the  former  to  find  £10,000  to  £50,000  must 
be  spent  in  order  to  make  the  changes  necessary  to  a  successful, 
economical  operation  of  the  plant  ;  with  the  knowledge  now 
available  a  well-equipped  works  can  be  guaranteed  to  give  the 
output  required  and  maintain  it. 

SITE 

First  of  all  the  locality  of  the  site  must  be  thoroughly  explored 
in  order  to  ascertain  if  suitable  raw  materials  are  present  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  ensure  continuous  working  for  a 
considerable  number  of  years. 

Such  an  investigation  requires  the  services  of  engineers  and 
chemists  thoroughly  skilled,  not  only  in  the  design  and  erection 
of  Portland  Cement  plants,  but  also  in  their  operation,  and 
especially  those  with  personal  experience  of  various  raw  materials 
used  in  cement  manufacture.  Many  plants  in  operation  to-day 
have  suffered  considerable  losses  through  commencing  construction 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION   OF  A    MODERN    PLANT    15 

without  an  adequate  knowledge  of  the  deposits  of  the  raw 
material,  and  even  with  no  reliable  survey  of  the  proposed  quarry 
to  guide  the  location  and  erection.  This  point  proving 
satisfactory,  the  manufacturer  should  next  consider  the  suitability 
of  the  site  with  regard  to  its  available  rail  and  water 
communication  with  the  necessary  markets,  since  inaccessibility 
must,  of  course,  always  mean  increased  expenditure  and  often 
failure. 

SIZE 

The  size  of  the  plant  is  frequently  a  matter  of  very  grave 
speculation  and  must  be  largely  governed  by  the  available 
markets,  but  a  modern  cement  plant  to-day  must  have  large 
capacity  and  low  cost  of  manufacture,  requisites  attained  only  by 
careful  design  and  construction.  Provision  should  always  be 
made  in  the  design  to  increase  the  capacity  of  the  plant  if 
necessary.  If  actual  figures  were  required,  a  plant  capable  of 
producing  450  to  500  tons  daily,  say  3,000  tons  weekly,  would 
appear  to  be  the  ideal  one  for  combining  the  maxima  of  efficiency 
and  economy. 

DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION 

Of  course,  no  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the 
design  and  construction  of  a  plant,  nor  as  to  the  particular 
machinery  to  be  used,  but  in  all  construction  two  leading  features 
should  never  be  lost  sight  of,  viz.  : 

1.  Simplicity  of  design. 

2.  Strength  of  construction. 

Experience  has  clearly  proven  that  the  heaviest  and  best 
machinery  must  be  used  in  the  Portland  Cement  plant.  Simple, 
powerful,  and  economical  construction  is  necessary  to  ensure 
durability  and  efficiency  under  heavy  service.  Complications  are 
always  elements  of  weakness.  Lubrication  must  be  automatic  and 
reliable. 

Rapidity  of  repairs  and  interchangeability  must  be  ensured, 
whilst  lifting  appliances  should  be  provided  over  all  machines  for 
rapid  dismantling,  since  continuous  operation  is  imperative,  and 
delays  due  to  breakdowns  are  expensive  and  must  be  attended  to 
promptly. 

Mechanical  devices  should  be  used  whenever  possible  to 
eliminate  manual  labour. 

Ample  storage  should  be  arranged  for  materials  in  the  different 
stages  to  ensure  at  least  twelve  hours  running  in  case  of  a  break- 
down in  any  department,  and  so  avoiding  the  entire  plant  being 
stopped. 

Owing  to  the  comparative  absence  of  competition  in  the  early 
days  of  the  industry  in  Great  Britain,  very  little  attention  was 
paid  to  the  engineering  features  of  the  factories.  As  the  demand 


16  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

for  the  commodity  increased  the  producers  extended  their  plants 
again  and  ag-ain,  until  they  became  most  complicated,  and  to  the 
outside  observer  appeared  to  be  a  chaotic  mass  of  dusty  brick 
buildings  and  chimneys. 

With  increased  competition,  however,  these  manufacturers 
found  they  were  being  outstripped  by  their  foreign  rivals,  and 
are  now  modernizing  their  old  factories  and  erecting  up-to-date 
plants. 

In  no  other  industry  is  the  wear  and  tear  on  the  machinery  so 
great.  Having  to  run  day  and  night,  it  follows  that  every  portion 
of  the  plant  must  be  of  the  best  possible  material  and  workman- 
ship, and  so  arranged  as  to  afford  ready  access  in  case  of 
breakdowns. 

There  are  in  existence  many  types  of  machinery  for  all  the 
processes  of  cement-making,  and  much  attention  is  still  being 
given  to  its  design,  more  especially  abroad,  but  the  manufacturer 
in  erecting  a  new  plant  should  rej  ect  anything  of  a  complex  nature 
as  being  unsuitable  for  the  profitable  production  of  cement,  whilst 
his  margin  of  profit  will  be  very  small  indeed  if  his  plant  is  not 
so  constructed  as  to  withstand  the  heavy  service  to  which  it  is 
subjected. 

Finally,  since  repairs  and  renewals  are  very  expensive  items, 
no  factory  can  be  considered  complete  without  an  efficiently 
equipped  repair  shop. 

QUARRY  PRACTICE 

So  much  study  has  been  given  to  the  development  of 
mechanical  economics  for  excavating  of  the  raw  materials,  the 
iirst  step  towards  the  actual  manufacture  of  cement,  that  the 
little  army  of  men  who  went  into  the  quarry  with  sledge  and  pick 
to  win  the  materials  by  hand  and  load  it  into  little  cars  must 
give  place,  if  it  has  not  already  done  so,  to  the  indispensable 
steam  shovel  and  the  big  blast  hole  method  of  drilling. 

The  industrial  locomotive  with  its  train  of  cars,  being  loaded 
at  the  rate  of  80  to  100  tons  per  hour  by  the  steam  shovel  and 
run  direct  to  the  crusher  or  the  storage  ground,  is  now  the 
prevailing  practice. 

Mechanical  means  are  also  provided  for  the  stripping  of  heavy 
overburden  from  the  limestone,  chalk,  or  clay  deposits,  a  very 
expensive  operation  by  hand  labour  ;  it  is  very  necessary  to 
remove  this  foreign  matter  from  the  pure  material  to  be  used  for 
the  manufacture. 

No  difficulty  will  be  experienced  when  once  the  quarry  is 
opened  up  for  the  steam  shovel  to  excavate  the  guaranteed 
capacity. 

All  material  should  be  won  from  the  quarry  for  the  week's 
output  of  cement  in  fifty  to  sixty  hours  (if  the  weather  is 


X! 


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o  o    EH 


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5  a 


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DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION   OF  A    MODERN    PLANT    17 

favourable),  leaving  part  of  Saturday  morning  to  overhaul  and 
carry  out  repairs  to  the  steam  shovel,  etc. 

Blasting  operations  should  take  place  once  a  week,  on  Saturday 
just  after  noon,  when  men  are  away  ;  the  charging  of  holes 
and  other  preparations  can  be  carried  out  during  the  morning. 

BIG  HOLE  BLASTING  DRILLS 

"  Within  the  last  two  or  three  years  the  great  advancement  in 
the  production  of  cement,  the  reduction  in  cost  of  production,  and 
the  increase  in  output  have  been  considerably  aided  by  the  big 
blast  hole  method  of  drilling.  The  drilling  proposition  to-day 
ranks  among-  the  prime  factors  of  cement  or  lime  production, 
for  if  the  drill  fails  the  whole  plant  shuts  down. 

"  Until  very  recently  the  tripod  method  of  drilling,  as  well  as 
many  other  °  rule-of-thumb  '  methods,  was  accepted  without 
question,  and  what  little  reduction  in  the  cost  and  increase  in 
production  were  effected  were  due  rather  to  the  extra  efforts  put 
forth  by  the  men  than  to  the  methods  they  employed.  Although 
there  are  quarry  owners  who  still  use  the  small  hole  method,  they 
are  few  and  their  number  is  rapidly  diminishing.  The  big  hole 
drills  are  replacing  the  small  hole  drills,  and  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases  more  than  pay  for  themselves  in  the  course  of  a  few 
.months.  The  reason  for  this  is  evident  as  soon  as  the  advantages 
of  the  big  hole  method  are  known.  A  few  of  these  advantages 
are  as  follows  :— « 

"  First.  The  per  ton  drilling  cost  is  less,  due  to  the  wider 
spacing.  Figuring  the  tripod  hole  at  an  average  of  2J  inches  and 
the  big  blast  hole  <at  5  J  inches  in  diameter,  we  then  have  a  capacity 
ratio  between  the  two  holes  of  3*97  to  23'76.  The  general  ru'e 
followed  in  preliminary  testing  in  blasting  is  that  1  square  inch 
of  drill  hole  will  displace  8j  square  feet  of  stone.  Figuring  on 
this  basis,  the  tripod  hole  will  handle  33' 74  square  feet  and  the 
big  blast  hole  will  handle  20 11 96  square  feet,  which  means  that 
it  will  require  5'99  times  as  much  small  hole  drilling  as  large 
hole  -drilling. 

"  Second.  On  account  of  the  deeper  hole  in  big  hole  drilling, 
the  loss  occasioned  by  '  blowing  out '  will  be  eliminated,  thus 
effecting  a  savingi  in  the  cost  of  explosives  of  from  200 
to  500  per  cent. 

"  Third.  The  big  holes  are  drilled  the  full  depth  of  the  breast, 
and  thus  they  do  away  with  benchmen,  who  are  not  only  expensive 
as  labour  but  are  also  expensive  risks,  as  they  are  not  only  in 
danger  themselves  but  are  a  menace  to  the  workmen  below. 
Another  expense  connected  with  bench-cleaning  is  the  loss  in 
productive  capacity  of  the  men  on  the  floor  of  the  quarry  on 
account  of  being-  on  the  look  out  for  the  men  above.  This  item 
ranges  from  10  to  20  per  cent  loss  in  efficiency  to  a  complete 


18 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


non-production  of  a  certain  section  of  the  quarry,  where,  on 
account  of  the  risk  involved,  it  is  necessary  to  abandon  loading 
until  the  bench-cleaning  operations  are  over. 

"  Fourth.  Such  a  large  amount  of  stone  can  be  shot  down  at 
one  time  that  it  makes  it  possible  to  keep  a  steady  and  uniform 
supply  of  rock  ahead  of  the  men,  thus  bringing  the  production 
of  the  plant  up  to  the  maximum. 

"  Fifth.  The  shooting  is  done  less  often,  thus  eliminating 
lost  time. 

"  Sixth.  Big  holes  are  easier  to  load,  and,  compared  with  the 
tonnage,  are  cheaper  to  load,  as  a  big  hole  can  be  loaded  in 
about  the  same  time  as  a  small  one. 

"  Seventh.  Big  holes  are  of  the  same  diameter  at  the  bottom 
as  at  the. top,  and  thuls  it  is  possible  to  load  the  most  explosive 
where  it  will  do  the  most  good — in  the  bottom. 

"  Eighth.  On  account  of  the  heavier  charge,  and  being  able 
to  place  it  properly,  the  stone  will  be  broken  much  finer  than  by 
the  small  hole  method,  thus  facilitating  the  handling  and  also 
greatly  reducing  the  work  of  the  crusher. 

'"  The  eight  advantages  above  enumerated  are  the  primary 
advantages,  and  should  be  nflted  when  the  installation  of  a  big 
blast  hole  is  being  considered.  The  modern  big  hole  operator 
takes  la  broad  survey  of  his  proposition,  and  while  it  is  naturally 
expected  that  the  big1  drill  will  save  on  that  part  of  the  work  to 
which  it  is  directly  charged,  namely,  drilling,  still  in  making- 
calculations  the  careful  operator  will  judge  this  item  of  drill 
saving  by  final  results  and  final  costs. 

"  The  following  comparative  cost  data  are  taken  from  reports 
from  quarries  where  Cyclone  big  blast  hole  drills  are  in  operation, 
and  gives  the  savings  being  effected  by  the  big  hole  method  over 
the  tripod  method  of  drilling  :— •» 

First  Plant 
Material  gotten  out  for 
Quarry  breast  . 
Stratification    . 
Method  of  loading     . 
Average  size  of  tripod  holes 
Size  of  big  blast  holes 
Spacing  of  tripod  holes 
Spacing  of  big  blast  holes 
Cost  of  drilling  per  ton — tripod 
Cost  of  drilling  per  ton — big-hole 
Cost  of  shooting  per  ton — tripod 
Cost  of  shooting  per  ton 
Drilling  per  day — tripod 
Drilling  per  day — big-hole 
Saving  in  drilling  per  ton  . 
Saving  in  shooting  per  ton 
Saving  in  overhead  per  ton 

Total  saving  per  ton     .         .         .        6- Sets. 


30' 

Thin,  shelly 

es 

Shovel 

6'x6' 

14'xl4' 

ripod 

7-Octs. 

)ig-hole 

0-6    ,, 

-tripod 

3-5    „ 

-big-hole 

2-8    „ 

. 

35' 

i 

90' 

t 

6-4  cts. 

i 

0-4    ,, 

n 

No  data 

PLATE  III, 


CYCLONE    DllILL. 


[To  face  page  18. 


PLATE  IV. 


BIG   BLAST   HOLE    DRILLS   IN    OPERATION. 

[To  face  page  18. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION   OF  A   MODERN    PLANT    19 


Second  Plant 
Material  gotten  out  for      .... 

Quarry  breast   ...... 

Stratification    ...... 

Method  of  loading 

Average  size  of  tripod  holes 

Size  of  big  blast  holes        .... 

Spacing  of  tripod  holes      .... 

Spacing  of  big  holes  ..... 

Cost  of  drilling  per  ton — tripod . 

Cost  of  drilling  per  ton — big  holes     . 

Cost  of  shooting  per  ton — tripod 

Cost  of  shooting  per  ton — big  holes  . 

Drilling  per  day — tripod    .... 

Drilling  per  day — big  holes 

Saving  in  drilling  per  ton . 

Saving  in  shooting  per  ton 

Saving  in  overhead  per  ton 

Total  saving  per  ton 

Third  Plant 
Material  gotten  out  for 

Quarry  breast 

Stratification    ...... 

Method  of  loading     ..... 

Average  size  of  tripod  holes 

Size  of  big  blast  holes       .... 

Spacing  of  tripod  holes      .... 

Spacing  of  big  holes          .... 

Cost  of  drilling  per  ton — tripod 
Cost  of  drilling  per  ton — big  holes 
Cost  of  shoDting  per  ton — tripod 
Cost  of  shooting  per  ton — big  holes  . 
Drilling  per  day — tripod    .... 

Drilling  per  day — big  holes 

Saving  in  drilling  per  ton  .... 

Saving  in  shooting  per  ton 
Saving  in  overhead  per  ton 


.    Crushed  rock 

40' 
2'-8' 

.  Biggest  shovels 
5"  top,  3^"  bottom 

54" 

8'x8' 

18'xl2' 

5 -76  cts. 

0-82    ,, 

3-98    ,, 

2 -94  cts. 

34-6' 

64-2' 

4 -94  cts. 

.       1-04    „ 

Unable  to  figure 


5-98  cts. 

Crushed  rock 

50' 

2'-10' 
Hand 

2|* 

54" 
5'x5' 

13'xl3' 
4-3  cts. 
0-88  ,, 
3-2    ,, 
2-8    „ 

50' 

50' 

3-42  cts. 
0-40    ,, 
1-70   ,, 


Total  saving  per  ton     .         .         .        5-52  cts. 

"  The  three  comparisons  made  will  give  some  idea  of  how  the 
saving  in  drilling,  shooting,  and  overhead  runs.  There  are  some 
plants  doing  better  than  "the  figures  given  herewith,  while  there 
are,  of  course,  others  which  do  not  show  up  so  well.  In  any 
event,  the  big  hole  method  of  blasting  in  connexion  with  the 
manufacture  of  lime  or  cement,  or  in  connexion  with  quarry 
work  in  general,  has  been  or  is  being  adopted  by  all  of  the 
leading  and  up-to-date  cement,  lime,  and  stone  companies 
throughout  the  U.S."  * 

STORAGE  OF  RAW  MATERIALS 

For  many  years  the  locomotive  crane  and  grab  has  been  used 
with  great  success  in  unloading  coal,  coke,  gypsum,  etc.,  from 
barges  and  lighters  on  Portland  Cement  factories. 
1  Extract  from  Concrete-Cement  Age,  July,  1914. 


20  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

In  the  case  of  coal  for  rotary  kilns,  it  is  grabbed  from  the 
barge  or  lighter  and  put  into  a  hopper  over  the  crushing  rolls 
at  a  cost  in  wages  of  Id.  to  l^d.  per  ton. 

The  storing  of  raw  materials  direct  from  the  quarries  should 
claim  the  serious  attention  of  all  cement  manufacturers. 

It  is  essential  that  the  plant  should  run  without  interruption 
(in  wet  weather  the  quarry  operations 'are  often  stopped),  although 
provision  has  been  made  in  each  slurry  storage  tank  for  an 
approximately  three  days'  supply  for  one  kiln. 

The  fact  of  closing  down  the  crushers  and  wet  grinding  mills 
means  a  serious  loss. 

The  locomotive  crane  with  a  suitable  grab -bucket  can  be  well 
utilized  in  a  raw  material  storage  ground.  Local  conditions  and 
surroundings  of  the  crushing  and  clay  washmill  plants  will  guide 
the  plans  and  lay  out  of  the  storage  ground. 

The  storage  capacity  should  represent  one  week's  run  of  the 
plant.  Advantage  should  be  taken  of  favourable  weather  to 
maintain  the  supply. 

In  the  United  States,  where  the  conditions  of  the  weather 
during  the  winter  months  are  particularly  bad,  a  large  Portland 
Cement 'Company  employs  an  electric  locomotive  crane,  having 
a  65ft.  radius  and  operating  a  2yd.  bucket,  for  the  purpose 
of  storing  crushed  limestone  during  the  summer  months,  and 
accumulate  such  a  supply  of  material  that  the  mill  could  be 
operated  during  the  winter  without  operating  the  quarry,  which 
runs  into  excessive  cost  in  the  winter  time. 

The  storage  capacity  of  the  installation  amounts  to 
approximately  100,000  tons. 

The  material  is  delivered  from  the  crusher  to  an  underground 
conveyor,  which  feeds  into  an  elevator  that  is  located  in  the 
middle  of  a  circular  track.  This  elevator  discharges  at  a  con- 
venient location,  so  that  it  can  be  handled  by  the  grab -bucket 
of  the  locomotive  crane  to  a  storage  area  outside  of  the  circular 
track. 

The  circular  storage  system  is  patented  by  the  Link- Belt 
Company,  Chicago,  111.,  U.S.A. 

CRUSHING  AND  GRINDING  THE  RAW  MATERIALS 

The  crushing  and  grinding  practice  of  the  raw  materials  in 
cement  manufacture  is  of  th.e  greatest  importance,  and  closely 
associated  with  the  financial  success  or  failure  of  the  works. 

In  round  figures,  for  every  ton  of  cement  produced  32  cwt. 
of  raw  materials  have  to  be  crushed  and  ground  to  an  Impalpable 
condition,  so  that  90  to  95  per  cent  passes  through  a  sieve  with 
32,400  hole  to  the  square  inch.  Approximately  75  per  cent  of  this 
material  is  hard  limestone,  so  it  will  at  once  be  apparent  to 


PLATE  V. 


STEAM  CEANE  FOE  CIRCULAR  COAL  STORAGE  SYSTEM  (20  ft. 

gauge,  80  ft.  radius,  2  ton  bucket,  80,000  tons  storage  capacity). 


[To  face  page  20. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION   OF  A    MODERN    PLANT    21 

business  men  how  rapidly  money  may  be  lost  by  improper  methods 
at  this  preliminary  stage  of  the  process. 

CRUSHING 

Crushing  of  the  hard  raw  materials  as  a  commercial 
proposition  has  been  a  gradual  one,  as  the  perfection  of  machinery 
and  mechanical  devices  for  handling  the  materials  has  developed, 
and  requires  special  consideration  when  being  designed  to  suit 
local  conditions. 

But  the  following  general  principles  are  essential  :  — 

(1)  Handling-     the     raw     materials     with     the     greatest 

efficiency. 

(2)  Installing   powerful   crushing    machinery   with   large 

reserve  power. 

(3)  Adopting  the  gradual  reduction  system. 

(4)  Installing  large  elevators  and   conveying  belting  to 

deal  with  the  material  efficiently. 

The  cars  as  they  arrive  from  the  quarry  with  the  limestone 
will  be  dumped  by  the  tippler  into  a  hopper  over  a  feeding- 
apparatus  to  the  primary  crusher  ;  it  is  not  good  practice  to 
tip  the  material  direct  into  the  mouth  of  the  crusher,  the  lumps  of 
limestone  get  wedged,  together,  causing  much  delay.  With  a 
feeding  device  this  trouble  is  overcome  ;  the  attendant  has 
complete  control  over  the  feed,  the  sure  method  to  obtain  the 
maximum  output. 

The  mouth  of  the  crusher  must  be  somewhat  larger  than  the 
navvy  shovel  to  ensure  that  all  lumps  of  limestone  passing  from 
the  bottom  of  the  shovel  will  pass  the  mouth  of  the  crusher, 
or  much  time  will  be  wasted  by  breaking  the  stone  at  the  crusher 
mouth,  which  is  not  only  dangerous,  but  bad  practice. 

From  the  primary  crusher  the  material  passes  through  a  rotary 
screen  with  2  in.  mesh.  The  limestone  passing  through  the  screen 
is  conveyed  to  a  hopper  over  the  crushing  rolls  ;  the  tailings 
passing  are  automatically  fed  into  an  elevator,  which  conveys  them 
to  a  steel  pocket  with  chutes  converging  directly  over  gyratory 
crushers,  and  passing  through  them  are  also  conveyed  to  the 
hopper  over  the  crushing  rolls. 

The  crushing  rolls  reduce  the  material  to  Jin.  to  Jin.  mesh, 
the  limestone  being  fed  from  the  hopper  by  an  automatic  device, 
so  essential  to  get  the  best  results.  It  is  now  conveyed  to  bins, 
over  the  wet  ball  mills,  which  must  be  large  enough  for  a  twelve- 
hours  full  supply  to  each  mill. 

A  reserve  hopper  should  be  provided  to  supply  the  mills  in 
case  they  run  out  during  the  night  or  other  emergency. 

The  crushing  machinery  installed  for  an  output  of  3,000  tons 
of  Portland  Cement  must  be  capable  of  crushing  3,600  to  4,000 


22  THE    POETLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

tons  of  limestone  in  fifty-six  hours,  or  even  fifty  hours  per  week, 
allowing-  Saturday  morning  for  the  gang  to  have  a  general  over- 
haul and  clean  before  leaving  at  1  p.m.  all  in  readiness  for 
starting  on  Monday  at  6  a.m.  The  number  of  men  required 
for  the  crushing  department  will  be  five  or  six.  (Piecework 
rates  or  a  bonus  given  on  the  week's  output.) 

In  the  earlier  days,  many  plants  after  preliminary  treatment 
in  a  coarse  crusher,  completed  the  final  reduction  in  one  or  two 
mills,  but  this  crude  system  has  been  modified  out  of  existence, 
and  all  modern  plants  properly  constructed  have  adopted  the 
gradual  reduction  system. 

(1)  Primary  crusher  as  received  from  quarry  to  3  in.  | 

to  Gin.  r   Cubes. 

(2)  Secondary   crusher   to  2  in. 

(3)  Crushing  rolls  to  J  in.  to  f  in. 

(4)  Ball  or  centrifugal  mills,   40  to  50  mesh. 

(5)  Tube  or  centrifugal  mills,  90  to  95o/o   through  ISO2  mesh. 

To  ensure  efficiency,  capacity  and  economy,  and  make  the 
commercial  operation  of  the  crushers  what  it  should  be,  the  plant 
tynust  first  be  properly  designed  by  competent  and  experienced 
engineers,  the  purchasing  of  high-class  machinery  does  not  alone 
ensure  the  perfect  operation  of  a  plant;  the  elevating  and  con- 
veying machinery  must  have  ample  carrying  capacity ;  and  be  well 
designed  and  fitted. 

TYPES  OF  CRUSHERS 

The  types  of  crushers  now  generally  adopted  are  the  jaw 
crusher,  the  gyratory  crusher,  and  troll  crusher  for  final  reduction. 
The  primary  crusher  must  be  of  large  capacity  to  easily  deal 
with  the  run-of -quarry  product  as  excavated  by  the  steam  shovel. 
The  jaw  crusher  as  a  primary  crusher  has  the  advantage  of 
having  a  larger  receiving  opening,  hereby  greatly  reducing  the 
cost  of  quarrying  and  at  the  same  time  cost  of  crushing. 

Experience  has  proven  this  so  conclusively  that  manufacturers 
of  crushing  plants  are  now  prepared  to  supply  crushers  to  suit 
all  conditions. 

(1)  Jaw    crusher  :     the    material    is    crushed    between    two 

jaws  ;      the     one     reciprocates,     the     other     remains 
stationary. 

(2)  Gyratory  crusher:  the  material  is  crushed  by  a  gyrating 

movement    of    a    corrugated    cone    within    a   ring    of 
corrugated  steel  plates. 

(3)  Roll  crusher:  the  material  is  crushed  between  two  or  more 

plain,  corrugated,  or  toothed  rollers. 

(4)  Disc  crusher  :    the  material  is  crushed  between  two  steel 

discs  "A"  and  "B". 


PLATE  VI. 


NEWELL'S   SWINGING    JAW   CKUSHEK. 


[To  face  page  22. 


PLATE  VII. 


GYllATOBY   CBUSHEB, 


[To  face  page 


PLATE  VIII. 


GYliATOltY   CBUSHEli    (SECTIONAL   VIEW). 


Symbol.  Description. 

1.  Cap  for  spider. 

2.  Nut  for  suspension  sleeve. 

3.  Bush  for  spider. 

4.  Suspension  sleeve  for  vertical  shaft. 

5.  Wearing  ring  for  suspension  sleeve. 

6.  Spider. 

7.  Feed  hopper. 

8.  Loose  collar  for  protecting  threads 

on  vertical  shaft. 

9.  Bottom  collar  for  crushing  head. 

10.  Concave  liners. 

11.  Concave  key  liner. 

12.  Mantel. 

13.  Crushing  head  centre. 

14.  Vertical  shaft. 

15.  Shell. 

16.  Eing  for  supporting  concaves. 

17.  Dust  collar  for  skirt. 

18.  Skirt. 


Symbol.  Description. 

19.  Bevel  pinion. 

20.  Main  bearing  body. 

21.  Main  bearing  cap. 

22.  Oil  lid  for  cap. 

23.  Kings  for  main  bearing. 

24.  Driving  pulley. 

25.  Driving  shaft. 

26.  Outboard  bearing  cap. 

27.  Outboard  bearing  body. 

28.  Dust-cap  for  eccentric  hood. 

29.  Bevel  wheel. 

30.  Eccentric  hub. 

31.  Wearing  plate  for  skirt  discharge. 

32.  Bearing  for  hub. 

33.  Friction  ring  for  eccentric  hub. 

34.  Countersunk  dowel  pins  for   friction 

rings. 

35.  Friction  ring  for  hub  bearing. 

36.  Loose  friction  ring. 

[To  face  page  22. 


PLATE  IX, 


m     m'    * 

"/'Mm-  I 


HAOriELDS  LM  SHEFFIELD 


RECIPROCATING   JAW   CRUSHEH. 


HORIZONTAL   ROLL   CRUSHER, 


[To  face  page  22. 


-sf-  S 


PLATE  XI. 


HAOFIELD51- 
DISC    CHUSHEH. 


DISC   CRUSHER   (SECTIONAL  VIEW). 


[To  face  page  22. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION   OF  A    MODERN    PLANT    23 

GRINDING 

The  process  of  grinding-  is  incident  to  almost  every  stage  of 
the  manufacture  of  cement,  from  its  initial  operation  of  reducing 
the  raw  materials  to  the  final  conversion  of  the  clinker  into  the 
finished  product.  Hence,  it  is  a  very  large  and  ever  noticeable 
item  on  the  debit  side  of  the  cement  manufacturer's  balance- 
sheet.  And  very  properly  so;  for  the  commercial  success  of  his 
plant  depends  very  largely  on  the  efficiency  of  his  grinding 
machinery.  Nothing,  therefore,  should  be  left  to  chance  to  secure 
perfect  running  in  these  most  important  departments  of  the 
factory. 

In  discussing  this  subject,  it  is  convenient  to  embrace  the 
grinding  of  both  raw  materials  and  clinker,  as  it  is  now  the 
general  practice  to  adopt  a  duplication  of  the  grinding  machinery 
for  both  purposes. 

The  importance  of  the  fine  grinding  of  the  raw  material  to 
ensure  a  sound  and  volume-constant  cement  is  now  generally 
acknowledged,  though  in  the  early  days  of  the  industry  this 
subject  received  but  very  scant  attention.  Everyone  is  now 
agreed  that  to  ensure  the  materials  entering  into  proper  chemical 
combination  when  submitted  to  the  clinkering  temperature — about 
2,800°F. — it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  they  should  be  in  the 
finest  possible  state  of  subdivision. 

Consider  for  a  moment  the  amount  of  material  that  must  be 
ground  to  an  impalpable  powder  for  a  3,000  ton  weekly  capacity 
plant,  and,  at  the  same  time,  bear  in  mind  that  the  materials 
so  ground  may  be  crystalline  limestone  and  shale. 

This  means  that  a  bulk  weighing  7,800  tons  has  to  be  ground 
so  finely  that  from  90  to  95  per  cent  passes  through  a 
sieve  with  32,400  holes  to  the  square  inch.  Of  this,  4,800  tons 
are  in  the  original  condition  from  the  quarry.  The  remaining 
3,000  tons  are  in  the  clinker  condition,  for  it  is  necessary  to 
grind  this  equally  finely,  if  soundness — that  most  important 
quality  of  cement^— is  to  be  obtained.  No  matter  how  high  a 
degree  of  tensile  strength  is  obtained  in  comparatively  short 
periods,  if  the  product  fails  to  resist  the  disintegrating  influence 
of  the  atmosphere,  or  of  the  water  in  which  it  is  placed,  it  is 
useless  as  a  material  of  construction.  This  quality  can  only  be 
attained  by  extremely  fine  grinding.  Thus  the  absolute  necessity 
of  the  most  efficient  grinding  machinery  is  apparent. 

Many  disappointments  have  been  experienced  by  owners  of 
cement  plants  when  the  grinding  machinery  has  failed  to 
produce  the  quantity  of  raw  material  at  the  fineness  required  by 
the  contractor  or  consulting  engineer. 

Manufacturers  of  grinding  machinery  naturally  base  the  out- 
put of  their  mills  upon  the  best  results  obtained  from  the  materials 


24  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

submitted  for  testing-.  It  often  happens,  however,  that  these 
materials  have  been  taken  from  the  top  layers,  or  from  the  face 
of  a  quarry  where  the  rock  has  been  "  weathered  "  or  softened, 
and  to  base  grinding  capacity  on  such  results  is  entirely  fallacious, 
since,  as  the  quarry  is  developed,  the  excavated  substances  greatly 
increase  in  compactness  and  hardness,  and  the  mills  must,  there- 
fore, fail  to  give  the  results  expected. 

This  also  applies  to  clinker  in  the  dry  process  where  it  is 
almost  a  necessity  to  burn  to  vitrifaction  in  order  to  secure  a 
sound  cement.  It  is  obvious,  of  course,  that  clinker  so  burnt  is 
much  more  solid  than  when  merely  broug-ht  to  incipient  infusion 
as  in  the  wet  process,  and  as  a  consequence  the  output  is 
decreased  whilst  the  wear  and  tear  on  the  grinding  machinery  is 
very  considerably  increased. 

There  are  many  excellent  types  of  crushing  and  grinding 
machinery  on  the  market,  and  every  manager  or  engineer  would 
probably  prove  that  his  own  particular  appliances  were  ful- 
filling his  purpose  and  performing  the  required  work  to  his 
satisfaction. 

Particulars  are  given  of  a  few  types  largely  in  use. 

THE  BALL  AND  TUBE  MILLS 

These  were  introduced  in  Germany  about  eighteen  years  ago, 
and  are  now  generally  adopted  throughout  the  cement  world; 
the  design  of  these  mills  has  not  materially  altered  since  their 
introduction. 

They  are,  subject  to  slight  alterations,  equally  suitable  for 
grinding  wet  or  dry,  hard  or  soft  materials,  and  also  for  clinker. 

From  the  moment  the  raw  materials  enter  the  mill  until  they 
are  finished  as  cement,  the  object  of  the  manufacturer  is  to 
preserve  the  mixture  of  the  product,  and  undoubtedly  the  ball 
and  tube  mills  do  this.  They  are,  in  fact,  mixers  as  well  as 
grinders.  The  very  simplicity  of  the  principle  of  reduction  by 
ball  and  tube  mills  is  sufficient  guarantee  of  their  reliability, 
while  the  fact  that  all  waste  produced  by  the  attrition  between 
balls,  .pebbles,  and  cement  is  carried  on  into  the  product,  helps 
to  offset  the  wear  and  renewal  account. 

In  modern  practice  it  is  generally  agreed  that  the  proce:ss 
of  reduction  must  be  a  gradual  one  both  for  raw  materials  and 
clinker,  and  the  ball  and  tube  mills  are  ideal  fbr  this  purpose 
since  the  former  acts  as  the  primary  grinder  for  the  latter.  The 
materials  are  reduced  just  sufficiently  by  the  sieves  of  the  ball 
mill  to  ensure  the  finished  product  from  the  tube  mill  being  of 
the  required  fineness. 

Hence  one  of  each  class  of  mill  should  work  together  and  bo 
so  arranged  that  the  transfer  of  substances  from  one  to  the  other 


X 

H 
H 


PLATE  XIV. 


NEWELL'S   LION   BALL   MILL. 


EDGAR   ALLEN'S   TUBE    MILL. 


[To  face  page  24. 


PLATE  XVI. 


TEANSVEESE    SECTION   OF   GATES'   BALL   MILL 
(ALLIS    CHALMEES   CO.). 


[To  face  page  24. 


DESIGN  AND   CONSTRUCTION   OF  A    MODERN    PLANT    25 

may  be  effected  by  gravitation,  thus  obviating  the  necessity  of 
costly  elevating  and  conveying  machinery  and  of  hoppers  over 
the  tube  mills. 

An  absolute  adjustment  can  be  made  by  the  miller  to  get  the 
best  results  from  both  mills.  If  the  requisite  fineness  is  not 
obtained  from  the  tube  mill,  when  its  condition  is  correct,  that 
is,  when  it  contains  the  proper  number  of  pebbles,  which,  by  the 
way,  should  be  as  near  the  centre  as  possible,  he  has  only  to 
replace  the  sieves  of  the  ball  mill  by  others  of  finer  mesh  and 
continue  to  do  so  till  the  desired  fineness  is  achieved.  To  facilitate 
this,  the  millers  should  have  a  supply  of  sieves  of  vario'us  meshes 
near  at  hand  in  order  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  time  wasted 
in  effecting  these  changes. 

To  produce  good  results,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that 
the  materials  should  be  regularly  fed  into  the  mill.  This  not 
only  ensures  sound  production,  but  serves  to  lessen  wear  and 
tear,  especially  in  the  ball  mill,  where  the  steel  balls,  if  allowed 
to  fall  on  the  steel  grinding  plates,  will  soon  involve  the 
manufacturer  in  an  expensive  account  for  repairs  and  renewals. 

The  best  device  for  this  purpose  is  the  pan  feed  gear.  Like 
all  other  really  efficient  machines,  its  extreme  simplicity  constitutes 
its  chief  recommendation. 

The  material  to  be  ground  gravitates  on  a  slowly  revolving 
plate,  and,  meeting  an  adjustable  plough,  is  led  off  to  the  ball 
mill  feed  hopper,  /the  angle  of  the  plough  governing  the  amount  of 
material  fed.  An  experienced  miller  can  judge  immediately  by 
the  "  ring"  of  the  mill  when  the  proper  feed  is  given,  and  also 
when  the  best  work  is  being  done. 

Reduction  by  ball  and  tube  mill  is  most  reliable,  and  once  the 
mills  are  properly  balanced  they  require  comparatively  little 
attention.  The  material  is  fed  in  at  the  centre  and  falls  amongst 
the  balls  of  the  former  while  the  mill  is  revolving.  These  balls 
remain  constantly  at  the  bottom,  gravitating  from  one  plate  to 
another  as  soon  as  sufficient  incline  is  obtained  from  the  rotation 
of  the  mill.  The  material  is  intermixed  with  these  balls,  and  the 
attrition  of  the  balls  and  the  concussion  due  to  their  falling  from 
one  step  to  another  reduce  it  to  a  powder  which  finds  its  way 
through  perforations  in  the  steel  plates.  It  then  falls  on  to  a 
coarse  grating,  or  inner  sieve,  which  rejects  everything  which  is 
not  fine  enough  to  pass  through.  Then,  again,  the  finer  portion 
of  the  material  passes  through  the  grating  and  falls  on  to  another 
and  still  finer  sieve,  and  everything  small  enough  to  pass  through 
this  passes  on  to  the  tube  mill. 

The  material  retained  on  these  two  sieves  automatically  finds 
its  way  back  into  the  mill.  This  is  brought  abou^fc  by  the 
continuous  revolution,  the  rejected  particles  re-entering  through 
specially  arranged  scoops,  and  continuing  through  the  same  cycle 


26  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

of  operations  till  they  are  sufficiently  fine  to  pass  through  the 
outer  sieve  and  thence  to  the  tube  mill. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  give  statements  as  to  the  efficiency 
of  these  mills  and  the  horse-power  required,  so  much  depending 
on  the  nature  of  the  material  to  be  ground,  the  degree  of 
preliminary  crushing1,  and  the  fineness  of  the  product  required, 
but  the  subject  is  discussed  under  "Power  Plants  ",  p.  51. 

GRIFFIN  MILLS 

The  Griffin  mill  was  designed  about  twenty-five  years  ago  for 
the  purpose  of  reducing  all  kinds  of  hard  and  refractory  materials 
to  a  fine  powder  at  one  operation  without  the  aid  of  auxiliary 
screening  or  separating  appliances.  It  has  been  in  constant  use, 
and  has  been  developed  and  improved  from  time  to  time  as 
experience  as  shown  to  be  necessary.  It  is  particularly  adapted 
for  use  where  a  very  fine  product  is  required.  By  its  use  at 
a  single  operation  material  can  be  reduced  in  the  30  in.  size  from 
f  in.  to  a/  fineness  of  10  to  14  per  cent  residue  on  a  sieve  having 
180  meshes  per  lineal  inch,  with  a  minimum  expenditure  of  power, 
and  the  wear  and  tear  cost  is  very  low. 

The  peculiar  action  of  the  Griffin  mill  is  effected  by  the  positive 
rotation  of  the  roll-head,  by  means  of  which  it  pulls  itself  around 
the  die  ring  on  which  it  runs  and  operates.  The  roll-head  has 
a  drawing  action  on  the  material,  pulling  it,  so  to  speak,  between 
the  roll-head  and  the  die  ring,  and  exerting  a  crushing  and 
abrading  action  which  no  other  mill  does.  The  roll-head  is 
revolved  within  the  die  ring  in  the  same  direction  that  the  shaft 
is  driven,  but  when  coming  in  contact  with  the  die  ring  it  travels 
around  the  die  ring  in  the  opposite  direction  from  that  in  which 
the  roll-head  is  revolving  with  the  shaft,  thus  giving  the  mill 
two  direct  actions  on  the  material  to  be  ground.  The  crushing 
effect  of  the  roll -head  against  the  die  ring  in  the  30  in.  Griffin 
mill  is  over  6,000  pounds. 

The  Griffin  mill  is  very  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
Portland  Cement  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  large  numbers 
are  in  use  pulverizing  the  raw  materials — limestone,  shale,  clay, 
etc.,  cement  clinker,  and  the  coal  which  is  used  as  fuel  in  tho 
rotary  kilns.  Below  is  given  data  respecting  tlie  30  in.  Griffin 
mill  pulverizing  materials  as  used  in  the  Portland  Cement  industry 
under  ordinary  working  conditions. 

Output. 

On  limestone  and  shale     .  If -2j  tons  per  hour. 

On  chamber  kiln  clinker.  1J-2         ,,         ,, 

On  rotary  cement  clinker.  1-lJ         „         „ 

On  coal    ....  l-2        „ 


LIST  OF  PARTS  OF  COMPOSITE  FRAME  GRIFFIN  MILL 


1.  Shaft.  38. 

2.  Body  of  roll.  40. 

3.  Follower.  41. 

4.  Main  carrying  frame.  42. 

5.  Frame  stay  rods.  42  J. 

6.  Spider  and  fans.  43. 

8.  Nut  for  follower  (for  use  with  44. 

No.  3).  45. 

9.  Ball  with  trunnions.  46. 

10.  Nut  for  top  of  shaft.  47. 

11.  Gibs.  48. 

12.  Top  shaft.  49. 

13.  Cover  casting.  50. 

14.  Steel  spring.  51. 

15.  Pressure  ring.  52. 

16.  Body  of  pulley.  53. 
-17.  Kim  of  pulley.  54. 

18.  Compression  ring.  55. 

19.  Bearing  ring.  56. 

20.  Cone  bearing. 

21.  Thrust   rings — two  of  steel  and       57. 

two  of  composition.  58. 

22.  Top  shaft  brace.  59. 

23.  Wood  standard.  60. 

24.  Body  of  mill  or  pan.  61. 

25.  Sheet-iron  cone — rear  half.  62. 
25a.  Sheet-iron  cone — front  half. 

26.  Conical  bushing.  63. 

27.  Straight  bushing.  64. 

28.  Bolts  for  ring  wedges.  65. 

29.  Steel  wearing  plates  in  pulley. 

30.  Feeder  standard. 

31.  Tire  for  roll.  66. 

32.  Feed  chute.  70. 

33.  Cover  support.  71. 

34.  Bolt  for  top  brace.  72. 

35.  Pulley  cover  stud  bolts. 

37.  Cone  bearing  set  bolt.  73. 


Screen  frame. 

Feeder  pulley. 

Feeder  shaft. 

Feeder  shaft  top  bearing. 

Cap  for  feeder  shaft  bearing. 

Hear  cover. 

Front  cover. 

Sheet-iron  cover. 

Clamp  for  cover. 

Clamp  with  bolt. 

Wedge  for  30  in.  ring. 

Feed  screw. 

Feed  hopper. 

Feed  slide. 

Feed  cover. 

Feed  screw  shaft. 

Feeder  shaft  lower  bearing. 

Body  of  feeder. 

Bracket  bearing  for  feed  screw 
shaft. 

Shifter  arm. 

Shifter  standard. 

Clutch. 

Pinion  with  clutch. 

Bevel  gear  of  feeder. 

Lock  washer  for  No.  63. 

Lock  washers  for  No.  28. 

Frame  bolts. 

Kubber  washer  for  stay  rods. 

Rubber  block  under  standard. 

Eubber  washers   for  cover   sup- 
ports, No.  33. 

Standard  socket. 

Steel  ring  or  die. 

Ball  joint  for  No.  42. 

Chilled  iron  roll-head,  18  in. 
diam. 

Nut  for  chilled  iron  roll-heads. 


[To  face  pa ge  26. 


PLATE  XVIII. 


-17 


COMPOSITE   FRAME    GKIFFIN   MILL   (SECTIONAL  VIEW). 


[To  face  page  86. 


THE    40  IN;    GIANT   GEIFFIN   MILL. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION   OF  A    MODERN    PLANT    27 

Fineness. — When  giving  the  above-named  outputs  the  fineness 
is  12  to  14  per  cent  residue  on  a  sieve  having  180  meshes  per 
linear  inch. 

Any  desired  fineness  of  grinding  may  be  obtained  from  the 
Griffin  mill,  it  being  simply  arranged  for  by  changing  the  mesh 
of  the  screen  which  is  fitted  around  the  pan  of  the  mill ;  the  output 
will  then  slightly  increase  or  decrease  accordingly. 

Horse-power. — When  doing  the  above  output  the  30  in.  Griffin, 
mill  requires  25  to  28  h.p.  applied  to  the  pulley  at  the  head  of 
the  mill. 

Size  of  Feed  and  Moisture. — The  material  should  be  fed  in 
pieces  up  to  f  in.  in  jsijze  and  for  best  results  2  pser  cent  of 
moisture  should  not  be  exceeded. 

The  latest  form  of  30  in.  Griffin  mill  is  that  of  the  composite 
wood  and  iron  frame  type.  This  style  is  made  with  wooden 
standards,  which  rest  on  rubber  blocks,  thus  giving  a  large 
measure  of  elasticity  to  the  framework,  and  cushioning  the 
(severe  vibratory  strains  which  are  necessarily  set  up  in  a 
pulverizing  mill.  During  the  la^st  year  or  two  substantial 
improvement^  have  been  made  in  the  design  and  construction  of 
the  machine,  so  that  the  Griffin  mills  now  being  sold  are  better 
in  many  wayls  than  those  made  several  years  ago.  Larger  bearing 
surfaces  for  the  wearing  parts,  providing  more  fully  for  the 
heavy  strains  when  grinding  the  hard  material,  have  been 
adopted. 

40  IN.    GIANT  GRIFFIN   MILL 

The  greatest  development  of  the  Portland  Cement  industry 
in  recent  yearte  has  resulted  in  the  construction  of  immense  works 
in  various  parts  of  the  world,  which  necessitates  the  machinery 
being  in  larger  units.  To  meet  this  demand  the  40  in.  giant 
Griffin  mill  was  specially  designed  and  constructed,  and  has  been 
on  the  market  for  some  time  with  excellent  results.  It  embodies 
the  experience  gained  over  the  past  twenty-five  years  in  the 
manufacture  of  cement-pulverizing  machinery,  and  shows  a 
marked  increase  in  efficiency,  both  as  power  required  to  operate 
it  and  in  the  fineness  of  product  produced.  The  principle  of 
the  giant  Griffin  mill  is  similar  to  that  of  the  30  in.  Griffin  mill 
on  a  heavier  and  more  substantial  scale,  and  the  crushing  effect 
of  the  roll-head  against  the  die  ring  amounts  to  about  15,000 
pounds. 

The  40  in.  giant  Griffin  mill  has  2  to  2j  times  the  capacity 
of  the  30  in.  Griffin  mill  to  a  better  fineness,  for  a  horse-power 
consumption  of  60  to  65  b.h.p.  applied  to  the  pulley.  Material 
can  be  fed  to  this  mill  in  pieces  up  to  lj  in.  size,  and  a  finished 
product  to  any  desired  fineness  is  obtained  at  one  operation. 


28 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


The  following  tests  were  made  at  one  of  the  largest  English 
cement  works  where  giant  Griffin  mills  are  in  operation  both  on 
the  raw  material  and  clinker  sides,  and  these  tests  were  made 
under  every-day  running  conditions. 


On  Rotary  Clinker. 

On  Raw  Materials, 
Limestone,  and  Shale. 

Output  per  hour 

49£  CWt. 

83  CWt. 

Kesidue  on  180  mesh  sieve 

14% 

10% 

100      ,,       „    . 

1-75% 

1-45% 

76     „       „    . 

•5% 

1-4% 

Percentage  of  flour  (tested  on  Gor 

aam' 

s 

Flourometer) 

48% 

— 

h.p.  applied  to  mill  pulley 

71-5 

54 

h.p.  per  ton  (ground) 

29 

13 

Screen  on  mill  . 

40  mesh. 

40  mesh. 

Size  of  feed 

1J"  down. 

IV  down. 

Condition  of  roll-head 

Half  worn-out. 

New. 

Condition  of  die  ring  . 

Quarter  worn-out. 

New. 

In  the  above  cases  of  clinker  grinding  it  must  be  remembered 
the  cement  clinker  was  very  hard,  one  of  the  hardest  clinkers 
produced  in  this  country. 

BRADLEY     THREE-ROLL    MILL 

The  improved  Bradley  three-roll  mill  continues  to  do  excellent 
pulverizing  work  on  raw  materials ;  limestone  and  shale,  on  softer 
clinkers  (it  is  not  recommended  for  rotary  cement  clinker)  and 
on  coal,  etc.  Large  numbers  are  installed  in  cement  works,  and 
the  following  data  respecting  this  mill  will  be  useful  :— 

Output. 

On  limestone  and  shale    .     3-4  tons  per  hour. 
On  chamber  kiln  clinker.     2J-3J       ,,       „ 
On  coal    ....     3-4  ,,       „ 

Fineness. — When  giving  the  above-named  outputs  the  fineness 
is  14  to  16  per  cent  residue  on  a  180  mesh  sieve. 

Horse-power. — 45  to  55  b.h.p.  applied  to  the  mill  pulley. 

Size  of  Feed  and  Moisture. — Material  should  be  fed  in  f  in. 
pieces,  and  the  moisture  should  not  exceed  2  per  cent  for  best 
results. 

The  Bradley  three-roll  mill  is  specially  recommended  for 
pulverizing  coal  for  use  as  fuel  in  rotary  kilns,  and  is  very 
popular  for  this  and  similar  work. 

Specially  Fine  Grinding. — Where  a  specially  fine  and  floury 
product  is  required,  the  "  Carr-Hill  "  patent  conical  baffle  can 
be  fitted,  which  has  been  used  with  very  great  success;  the 
percentage  of  residue  left  on  a  180  mesh  sieve  has  been  greatly 
decreased,  and  it  also  tends  to  greatly  increase  the  percentage 


PLATE  XX. 


BE  ABLE  Y   TH11EE-KOLL   MILL. 


[To  face  page  28. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION   OF  A    MODERN    PLANT    29 

of  flour  or  impalpable  powder  in  the  ground  product,  flour  tests 
made  on  ground  cement  with  Gorham's  standard  flourometer 
showing  as  high  as  60  to  62  per  cent  flour.  This  extra  fineness 
and  percentage  of  flour  applies  equally  when  grinding  cement 
clinker,  raw  material,  and  coal,  and  has  the  following  effects:  — 

(1)  When  grinding  cement  clinker  much  better  test  results  are 

obtained  on  the  finished  cement,  especially  in  the  sand 
tests. 

(2)  When    grinding    raw  materials,    a    finer    ground    product 

means  ia  better   quality   cement  clinker,   more    evenly 
burnt,  and  a  reduction  in  the  kiln  coal  consumption. 

(3)  In  the  case  of  coal  grinding,  it  means  a  much  cleaner 
i       and  more  regular  flame  with  a  resulting  increase  in 

output  from  the  kiln  and  decrease  in  the  amount  of  coal 
burnt  per  ton  of  cement  clinker  produced. 

CENTRIFUGAL     BALL     MILL 

THE    FULLER-LEHIGH    PULVERIZER    MILL 

Fan  Discharge  Type 

The  material  to  be  reduced  is  fed  to  the  mill  from  an  overhead 
bin  by  means  of  a  feeder  mounted  on  top  of  the  mill.  This  feeder 
is  driven  direct  from  the  mill  shaft  by  means  of  a  belt  running* 
on  a  pair  of  three-step  cones,  which  permits  the  operator  to 
accommodate  the  amount  of  material  entering  the  mill  to  the 
nature  of  the  material  being  pulverized.  In  addition  the  hopper  of 
the  feeder  is  provided  with  a  slide,  which  permits  the  operator  to 
increase  or  decrease  the  amount  of  material  entering  the  feeder 
hopper. 

The  material  leaving  the  feeder  enters  the  pulverizing  zone  of 
the  mill.  The  pulverizing  element  consists  of  four  unattached 
steel  balls,  which  roll  in  a  stationary,  horizontal,  concave-shape 
grinding  ring.  The  balls  are  propelled  around  the  grinding  ring 
by  means  of  four  pushers  attached  to  four  equidistant  horizontal 
arms  forming  a  portion  of  the  yoke,  which  is  keyed  direct  to  the 
mill  shaft.  The  material  discharged  by  the" feeder  falls  between 
the  balls  and  the  grinding  ring  in  a  uniform  and  continuous 
stream,  and  is  reduced  to  the  desired  fineness  in  one  operation. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  fan  discharge  mills  are  fitted  with  two 
fans.  One  of  these  fans  operates  in  the  separating  chamber 
immediately  above  the  pulverizing  zone,  whereas  the  other  fan 
operates  in  the  fan  housing  immediately  below  the  pulverizing 
zone.  The  upper  fan  lifts  the  fine  particles  of  pulverized  material 
from  the  grinding  zone  into  the  chamber  above  the  grinding  zone, 
where  these  fine  particles  are  held  in  suspension.  The  lower  fan 
acts  as  an  exhauster,  and  draws  the  finely  divided  particles  through 
the  finishing  screen  which  completely  encircles  the  separating 


30  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

chamber.  The  material  leaving  the  separating-  chamber  is  drawn 
into  the  lower  fan  housing*,  from  which  it  is  discharged  through 
the  discharge  spout  by  means  of  the  fanning  action  of  the  lower 
fan.  All  the  material  discharged  from  the  mill  is  finished  product 
and  requires  no  subsequent  screening. 

The  current  of  air  induced  by  the  action  of  the  lower  or 
discharge  fan  passes  over  the  pulverizing  zone  and  out  through 
the  screen  surrounding  the  separating  chamber,  thus  ensuring 
cooler  operation  and  maximum  screening  efficiency.  This  current 
of  air  keeps  the  screen  perfectly  clean,  and  enables  the  mill  to 
handle  material  containing  a  considerable  amount  of  moisture 
without  in  any  way  affecting  the  efficiency  of  the  machine. 

When  the  mill  is  in  operation  it  is  continually  handling  only 
a  limited  amount  of  material  at  any  one  time.  As  soon  as  the 
material  is  reduced  to  the  desired  fineness  it  is  lifted  out  of  the 
pulverizing  zone  and  discharged  from  the  machine.  It  is  there- 
fore evident  that,  inasmuch  as  the  crushing  force  is  being  applied 
to  only  a  limited  amount  of  material,  the  power  required  to 
operate  the  machine  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  is  further- 
more applied  directly  to  the  material  being  pulverized. 

This  shows  that  the  machine  possesses  maximum  mechanical 
efficiency,  which,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  it  is  economical  in 
cost  of  installation,  operation,  and  maintenance,  proves  con- 
clusively that  the  Fuller  mill  is  an  ideal  pulverizer  mill,  eminently 
well  suited  for  the  production  of  finely  ground  material  containing 
a  high  percentage  of  impalpable  powder. 

PRELIMINARY  PREPARATION  OF  MATERIAL  FOR  MILL  FEED 

Some  provision  should  be  made  to  prepare  the  lump  material 
before  it  is  fed  to  the  pulverizer  mill,  in  order  to  make  certain 
that  the  mill  will  not  be  subjected  to  service  for  which  it  is 
not  intended.  Materials  differ  widely  in  physical  structure  and 
chemical  characteristics.  Some  materials  occur  in  massive  form 
and  imust  be  (crushed  to  isui table  size  before  they  can  be  pulverized. 
Other  materials  contain  an  excessive  amount  of  free  moisture, 
which  must  be  driven  off  before  a  finely  powdered  product  can 
be  obtained.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  some  system  of  pre- 
liminary preparation  should  be  provided,  either  crushing,  drying, 
or  both  crushing  and  drying,  to  ensure  the  most  efficient  results 
relative  to  capacity,  power,  quality  of  product,  and  maintenance. 

CRUSHING 

Material  fed  to  the  various  sizes  of  Fuller  mills  should  be 
broken  down  as  follows  : — • 

Soft  and  Medium  Hard  Rock.  Hard  Rock. 

33"  mill         .         .         .    Through  f"  ring.  Through  |   ring. 
42"    „           .                                    1"      „  „        S"    „ 

57"    ,,   (Dreadnought)  .         „       Ik"    ,,  „      H"    >, 


LIST  OF  PARTS  OF  42  IN.  FULLER-LEHIGH  PULVERIZER  MILL 


Fan  Discharge  Type — 42  in.  or  45  in.  diameter  Driving  Pulley 


Name  of  Part. 
Base 

Bottom  section  . 
Fan  housing      .  . 

Intermediate  section 
Top  section 

Top  cover  plate,  right  hand 
Top  cover  plate,  left  hand 
Discharge  fan    . 
Yoke          .... 
Yoke  support     . 
Dust  collar  for  yoke  . 
Grinding  ring    . 
Pusher,  single  face,  closed  end 
Pusher,  single  face,  with  scoop 
Ball. 
Discharge  spout 


Conveyor  stand,  right  hand 
Conveyor  stand,  left  hand 
End  cover  for  conveyor  stand 
Top   cover  for  conveyor   stand 

right  hand     . 
Top   cover   for  conveyor  stand 

left  hand 

Caps  for  stand  bearing 
Bushing  for  stand  bearing 
Bushing  for  tail  bearing 
Feeder  hopper  . 
Feeder  hopper  slide  . 
Feeder  pinion  bracket,  right  hand 
Feeder  pinion  bracket,  left  hand 
Caps  for  feeder  pinion  bracket 


Mill  shaft          . 

Spud  for  mill  shaft   . 

Step  block  for  mill  shaft    . 

Fan  centre  (specify  if  right  or 
left  hand  and  material  ground) 

Top  fan  blades  (specify  if  right 
or  left  hand  and  material 
ground)  .... 

Bottom  fan  blades  (specify  if 
right  or  left  hand  and  material 
ground)  .... 

Top  fan  brackets  (specify  if  right 
or  left  hand  and  material 
ground)  .... 

Bottom  fan  brackets  (specify  if 
right  or  left  hand  and  material 
ground)  .... 

Perforated  protecting  screens, 
square  opening 


Designating 

Designating 

Number. 

Name  of  Part.                       1 

Tumber. 

.      D  4000 

Discharge  port  cover 

D4026 

.     D  4042 

Bottom  bearing 

D4027 

.     D  4045 

Bushing  for  bottom  bearing 

D4028 

.     D4046 

Dust-cap,  bottom  bearing  . 

D4029 

.     D  4003 

Intermediate  bearing  (two  h  alves) 

D4030 

.     D  4004 

Bushing  for  intermediate  bearing 

.     D  4005 

(two  halves)  .... 

D4031 

.     D  4007 

Clamp  for  intermediate  bearing 

.     D  4008 

(two  halves)  .... 

D4032 

.     D  4009 

Top  bearing       .... 

D4033 

.     D  4010 

Bushing  for  top  bearing     . 

D4028 

.     D  4011 

Dust-cap  for  top  bearing    . 

D  4029 

.     D  4016 

Lid  for  ventilating  opening 

D4036 

.     D  4017 

Driving  pulley,  42  in.  diameter  . 

D4038 

.     D  4018 

Driving  pulley,  45  in.  diameter  . 

D4039 

.     D  4022 

Feeder 

Parts 

D  4050 

Bushing  for  bracket  bearing 

D4063 

D4051 

Feeder  pinion    .... 

D4064 

D  4052 

Feeder  gear        .... 

D4065 

Feeder  pinion  shaft  . 

D4066 

D  4053 

Feeder  gear  shaft 

D4067 

Feeder  screw,  right  hand  . 

D4068 

D4054 

Feeder  screw,  left  hand 

D4069 

D4055 

Feeder  cone  pulley  on  mill  shaft 

D  4056 

(specify  material  ground) 

D4071 

D4057 

Feeder  cone  pulley  on  mill  shaft 

D  4058 

(specify  material  ground) 

D4072 

D  4059 

Feeder   cone   pulley   on   pinion 

1     D  4060 

shaft      

D4073 

1     D  4061 

Grease  cup  for  bracket  bearing  . 

D4074 

D  4062 

Grease  cup  for  stand  bearing 

D4075 

Sundry  Parts 

D  4083       Perforated    protecting    screens, 

D  4085  rectangular  opening        .          .     D  4093 

D  4086       Finishing  screen  (specify  material 
ground)  .... 

D  4087       Screen  band  .     D  4094 

Screen  band  brackets          .          .     D  4095 
Outside  casing  .     D  4096 

D  4088  Casing  brackets,  pin  end  .  .  D  4097 
Casing  brackets,  slot  end  .  .  D  4098 
Eye  bolt  for  outside  casing  .  D  4099 

D  4089       Pusher  pin  .          .          .     D  4100 

Washer  for  yoke  support    .          .     D  4101 
Pin  for  yoke  support  .          .     D  4102 

D  4090       Central  drum  .     D  4103 

Grease  cup  for  top  bearing. 
Grease     cup     for     intermediate 

D  4091  bearing. 

Oil  cup  for  bottom  bearing. 

D4092 

[To  face  page  30. 


PLATE  XXI. 


D4057- 

D4068 

D405C 


D4062 
D4073 


PINION  D4064 
GEAR  D4065 
D4052 


D4103 
— D4095 
| D4092  (SEt  LIST) 

TOP  FAN  BLADE  D4088 
TOP  FAN  BRACKET  D4090 
BOTTOM  FAN  BLADE  D4089 
TOM  FAN  BRACKET  D4O91 

087 
D4096 
D4003 


THE    FULLEK-LEHIGH   PULVERIZES   MILL   (42  IN.   FAN 
DISCHARGE    TYPE). 


[To  face  page  30. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION   OF  A   MODERN    PLANT    3 


Preliminary  crushing  for  Fuller  mill  feed  may  be  effected  by 
means  of  rotary  fine  crushers,  roll  crushers,  hammer  mills,  or 
ball  mills.  The  product  discharged  by  any  of  these  types  of 
crushers  will  be  suitable  feed  for  Fuller  mills. 

A  mixed  feed  containing  all  the  various  particles  resulting 
from  reducing  the  material  to  the  sizes  mentioned  above  is  the 
most  satisfactory  feed.  For  example,  when  crushing  to  £•  in.  ring 
size  the  run  of  the  crusher  will  contain  f  in.,  \  in.,  J  in.,  and  |in. 
particles,  together  with  some  dust.  This  feed,  when  delivered 
to  the  pulverizer  mill,  is  distributed  in  a  uniform  layer  over 
the  entire  surface  of  the  grinding  ring,  renders  the  grinding 
element  most  efficient,  and  consequently  produces  the  best  results. 

The  capacities  of  the  33  in.,  42  in.,  and  5 7  in.  mills,  when 
pulverizing  coal,  raw  cement  material,  and  Portland  Cement 
clinker,  are  as  follows  : — 


33"  Mill. 

42"  Mill. 

57"  Mill. 

Diameter  of  driving  pulley 
Speed  of  mill    .... 
Size  of  feed       .... 
Capacity  (tons),  coal  per  hour  . 

32"  x  12" 
210  r.p.m. 

1" 
2-2J 
30  h.p. 

2|-3 
40  h.p. 

45"  X  18" 
160  r.p.m. 
f 
4-5 
45  h.p. 

5-6 
55-65  h.p. 

10-14 
65-75  h.p. 

75"  x  23" 
130  r.p.m. 

ir 

8-10 
90  h.p. 

9-12 
110-125  h.p. 

20-30 
135-150  h.p. 

Capacity    (tons),    raw    material 
per  hour        .... 
Power       ..... 
Capacity   (barrels),  cement  per 
hour     ..... 
Power      ..... 

The  above  capacities  are  based  on  the  assumption  that  the 
fineness  of  the  finished  product  is  such  that  95  per  cent  will 
pass  through  a  100  mesh  sieve  and  85  per  cent  through  a  200  mesh 


sieve. 


STURTEVANT   "RING  ROLL"   MILL 
DESCRIPTION  AND  OPERATION 

A  heavy  steel  anvil  ring  is  secured  in  a  head  supported  and 
revolved  by  the  horizontal  shaft.  Against  the  inner  face  of  this 
ring  hammer  rolls  are  elastically  pressed  with  great  force  and 
revolved  by  the  ring. 

Substances  to  be  ground  are  fed  (up  to  1J  in.  sizes)  to  the 
inner  face  of  the  rotating  ring  and  held  thereon  by  centrifugal 
force  to  be  crushed  as  drawn  under  the  rolls.  The  face  of  the 
ring  is  concave,  and  the  roll  faces  convex. 

The  roll  mountings  are  on  the  massive  door  that  forms  one 
side  of  the  mill  casing,  and  are  swung  away  from  the  ring  with 
the  door  when  it  is  opened.  The  roll  shafts  are  as  large  as  those 
of  the  driving  wheels  of  a  locomotive,  and  crushing  pressures 


32  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

are  greater.  One  (adjusting  screw  on  the  outside  of  the  door 
regulates  the  roll  forces  and  gives  the  rolls  an  absolutely  equal 
pressure  of  from  20,000  to  40,000  Ib. 

Ring  protected  by  Layer  of  Material 

When  at  work,  the  concave  of  the  revolving  ring  is  always 
covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  material  fed  thereto.  A  naked 
track  is  never  exposed  to  the  roll  faces.  Rock  is  crushed  down 
upon  itself  (between  anvil  ring  and  hammer  roll),  producing  a 
maximum  of  fines,  with  least  wear. 

As  there  is  a  constant  feed  while  the  mill  is  at  work  of  coarse 
and  partly  reduced  material,  so  there  is  a  constant  drop  of  material 
crushed  off  of  both  sides  of  the  ring  by  the  rolls.  This  escapes, 
as  in  |all  mills  of  this  class,  from  the  bottom  of  the  case,  and  is 
tjaken  to  a  Sturtevant-Newaygo  screen  to  remove  the  finished 
product  as  soon  as  made.  The  tailings,  separated  by  this  most 
effective  of  all  screens,  are  returned  to  the  ring  (with  fresh  feed) 
for  further  reduction.  Thus  the  mill  is  always  breaking  down 
tailings  and  coarse  rock  upon  each  other  and  producing  a 
maximum  output. 

As  the  ring's  anvil  surface  is  always  protected  by  a  thick 
covering  of  rock,  held  thereon  by  centrifugal  force,  and  the 
hammer  rolls  strike  the  coarse  fresh  rock  down  upon  this  coating, 
it  is  flair  to  assert  that  ring-roll  mills  almost  completely  compel 
rocks  to  crush  one  another. 

The  enormous  crushing  pressures  already  mentioned  (which 
are  greater  than  the  track  pressures  of  locomotive  wheels)  are 
safe  with  the  high-power  steel  axles  of  the  Sturtevant  mill.  These 
elastically  and  equally  pressed  rolls  are  balanced  and  pass  over 
iron  or  uncrushable  substances  with  shocks  so  completely 
cushioned  that  crystallization  or  shaft  breakage  is  prevented. 

"OPEN  DOOR"  ACCESSIBILITY 

This  important  improvement  particularly  distinguishes  many 
Sturtevant  mills.  The  whole  front  of  this  mill  case  opens  like 
the  massive  door  of  a  safe,  and  carries  the  rolls  and  all  their 
parts  entirely  outside  of  the  mill,  exposing  the  whole  interior. 
The  ring,  which  is  the  only  working  part  left  inside,  can  be 
quickly  reached.  When  the  door  closes  it  swings  the  rolls  back 
into  the  interior  space  of  the  ring,  and  then  all  three  rolls  may 
be  equally  and  elastically  pressed  by  one  screw,  on  the  outside 
of  the  door,  against  the  ring  face  as  strongly  as  is  needed  to 
crush  any  grindable  material  put  on  the  ring.  The  ring 
discharges  its  rock  on  both  sides  of  the  concave  track.  Ability 
to  open  the  door  quickly  saves  time,  an  important  consideration 
even  in  small  works.  The  mill  case  has  other  openings  too 
that  are  convenient  for  quick  inspection. 


PLATE  XXII. 


KING-ROLL   MILL. 


RING-ROLL   MILL    (ACCESSIBILITY). 


[To  face  page  38. 


PLATE  XXIII. 


EING-EOLL  MILL   (DESCRIPTION  AND  OPERATION). 

Feed  enters  hopper  at  "  H  " . 

Spout  "  S  "  delivers  it  at  centre  of  concave  revolving  ring,  where  it  is  strongly 
held  by  centrifugal  force  until  crushed  off  by  the  rolls,  discharging  at  "  D  ". 
Ground  rock  crushed  off  of  both  sides  of  ring,  "  G." 
Thick  layer  of  centrifugally  held  unground  rock,  "  E." 


[To  face  page  32. 


PLATE  XXIV 


ROLLS 

DOjNQJ 
DRIVE  RING 


RING 

DRIVES  .ROLLS 
POSITIVELY 


ONLY  MILL  WITH 

NO.SU.1P 

BETWEEN 

RING  ft  ROLLS 


RING 

RJG1DLY  FIXED 
TO  SHAFT 
NO  WOBBLE 


KING-ROLL    (DESCRIPTION   AND    OPERATION). 

[.To  face  page  32. 


PLATE  XXV. 


CEMENT   GRINDING   UNIT   FOE  KOTAEY   AND   CHAMBER   CLINKEE. 


LTo  face  page  38. 


PLATE  XXVI; 


A  DOUBLE    STUKTEYANT-NEWAYGO    SCREEN   IN   ACTION. 


[To  face  yage  3S. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION   OF  A    MODERN    PLANT    33 


The  three  rolls  are  supported  with  abundant  strength  by  the 
massive  door.  Each  roll  is  swung-  into  immense  and  equal  elastic 
crushing  pressures  by  its  spring-actuated  steel  bell  lever.  The 
comparative  strength  of  a  Sturtevant  mill  is  shown  by  its  steel 
material  and  weight.  Either  roll  can  be  removed  and  replaced 
in  a  few  minuses- — because  no  shaft  has  to  be  disturbed. 

The  rolls  of  the  mill  may  be  held  away  from  the  ring  when 
the  ring  runs  empty,  because  they  do  not  support  it.  This  is  a 
considerable  advantage.  The  naked  surfaces  of  ring  and  rolls 
would  otherwise  at  this  time  injure  each  other  as  they  do  in  other 
mills,  when  allowed  to  run  empty. 

CAPACITY  OF  VARIOUS  MACHINES  USED  FOR  CRUSHING, 
GRINDING,  AND  CONVEYING 

The  following  figures  will  probably  be  found  useful  to  those 
interested  in  cement  plants,  and  give  some  idea  of  the  output 
and  power  consumption,,  etc.,  of  the  chief  machines  in  use.  In  all 
instances  it  must  be  understood  that  the  figures  are  approximate 
only,  as  they  iare  to  a  large  extent  dependent  upon  the  class  of 
material  dealt  with,  the  regularity  with  which  the  raw  material 
is  fed  into  the  machine,  and  the  fineness,  or  otherwise,  of  the 
finished  product  : — 

1  Gyratory  Crushers 


Finest 

Coarsest 

Setting. 

Setting. 

1 

Size  of 

s 

,c 

0> 

,c 

Size  of 

1 

01 

Horse- 

Approx. 

s 

each  Peed 

3~ 

§. 

sN 

§. 

Driving 

power 

Weight  of 

o 

"o 

Opening. 

11 

1 

8  SB 

il 

t| 

Pulley. 

1-2 

0  & 

required. 

Crusher. 

.3 

S3 

K 

CO  0 

3§S 

o^n 

£?£ 
3* 

III 

>  fl 

£z 

No. 

inches. 

in. 

tons. 

in. 

tons. 

inches. 

No. 

No. 

Ib. 

1 

5x    20 

I 

4 

If 

8i 

24  x    6 

475 

4-     6 

7,000 

2 

6x    25 

1 

ej 

2i 

12* 

24  x    8 

450 

6-  10 

10,300 

3 

7x    28 

U 

11 

2| 

25 

28x10 

425 

10-  15 

17,000 

4 

8x    34 

U 

20 

8i 

48 

32x12 

400 

12-  20 

23,000 

5 

10  x   40 

If 

30 

4i 

75 

36x14 

375 

20-  25 

37,000 

6 

12  x    44 

2 

50 

4* 

120 

40x16 

350 

25-  40 

48,500 

n 

15  x    55 

2J 

80 

5 

180 

44x18 

350 

45-  70 

72,000 

8 

18  x    68 

2f 

110 

5i 

250 

48x20 

350 

65-100 

100,000 

9 

21  x    76 

3 

160 

6 

350 

56x20 

325 

100-140 

160,000 

10 

24  x    84 

8i 

210 

6i 

450 

56x24 

325 

115-160 

180,000 

11 

27  x    92 

4 

260 

7 

550 

56x24 

325 

130-180 

200,000 

18 

36x130 

5 

600 

8 

1,100 

72x31 

280 

200-250 

425,000 

21 

42  x  136 

«i 

700 

9 

1,300 

72x33 

280 

225-280 

475,000 

24 

48  x  148 

6 

850 

10 

1,600 

84x33 

250 

250-325 

600,000 

1  Traylor  Engineering  and  Manufacturing  Co.,  New  York. 


34  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

1  Small  Jaw  Crushers 


Size  of  Opening. 

Capacity  in 
tons  per  hour. 

H.P. 

Pulley. 

R.P.M. 

Weight. 

inches. 

inches. 

inches. 

10  x    7 

4  to  1| 

8 

20  x    74 

300 

8,000 

20  x    6 

7      1* 

12 

.  30  x    74 

300 

14,000 

16x10 

74    14 

15 

30  x    9 

300 

16,500 

20x10 

10     14 

20 

30x12 

300 

20,000 

24x13 

20       2 

30 

42x13 

300 

30,000 

24x15 

20       2 

32 

42x13 

300 

32,000 

30x15 

25       2 

40 

42x15 

300 

38,000 

30x18 

25       2 

42 

42x15 

300 

45,000 

36x18 

45       24 

65 

42x19 

300 

60,000 

36x24 

45       24 

75 

48x20 

300 

80,000 

36x30 

48       24 

80 

48x22 

250 

85,000 

42x30 

72       3 

100 

54x22 

250 

130,000 

Large  Jaw  Crushers 


Size  of  Opening. 

Capacity  in 
tons  per  hour. 

H.P. 

Pulley. 

R.P.M. 

Weight. 

'  inches. 

inches. 

inches. 

60x30 

115  to  3 

135 

72x21 

200 

180,000 

72x30 

135       3 

150 

78x21 

200 

210,000 

42x36 

100       4 

110 

54x22 

200 

170,000 

48x36 

115       4 

135 

54x24 

200 

200,000 

60x36 

200       5 

140 

72x22 

200 

220,000 

48x42 

200       6 

140 

66x24 

175 

210,000 

60x42 

250       6 

150 

72x24 

175 

230,000 

60x48 

325       7 

175 

72  x  26 

150 

260,000 

84x60 

600       8 

250 

132  x  36 

90 

450,000 

Crushing  Rolls 


Size. 

Approximate 
Capacity 
tons  per  hour. 

R.P.M. 
of 
Rolls. 

Stationary 
Roll. 

Movable 
Roll. 

H.P. 

required. 

Weight. 

Diam.  Face. 

Diam.    Face. 

Diam.    Face. 

inches. 

in. 

inches. 

inches. 

Ib. 

72x36 

170  to  $ 

45 

108  x  30 

72x18 

115 

190,000 

72x24 

115       | 

45 

108  x  24 

72x14 

85 

150,000 

60x30 

80      i 

50 

96x24 

60x14 

90 

140,000 

54x24 

50      f 

60 

84x18 

42x14 

65 

85,000 

48x20 

35       § 

60 

84x16 

42x12 

50 

65,000 

42x16 

18      i 

70 

84x14 

42x10 

40 

36,000 

36x16 

13       i 

70 

72x14 

36  x    8 

25 

28,000 

30x14 

10       | 

80 

60x12 

30  x    6 

15 

19,500 

18x10 

5       A 

150 

36  x    6 

18  x    4 

8 

8,000 

Traylor  Engineering  and  Manufacturing  Co.,  New  York. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION   OF  A    MODERN    PLANT    35 


The  face  of  the  rolls  should  always  be  arranged  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  class  of  material  to  be  handled  ;  some  of 
the  types  met  with  in  practice  are  as  follows  :  — 

Smooth  rolls  are  generally  used  for  rotary  clinker  and  materials 

of  a  similar  nature,  such  as  slag,  etc. 
Corrugated  rolls  having  the  grooves  arranged  obliquely  are 

often  used  for  materials  similar  to  limestone. 
Toothed  rolls  are  suitable  for  material  of  the  nature  of  coal, 

gypsum,  chalk,  etc. 

Point  and  cutter  rolls  may  be  used  for  coal,  coke,  etc.,  and 
where  the  product  is  required  to  have  the  least  amount 
of  grit. 

Steel  Ball  Mills  (Wet  Grinding^ 


Weight  of 

Output 

Size  of  Mill. 

Driving  Pulleys. 

Steel 

per  hour. 

B.H.P. 

Balls. 

Limestone. 

Diam. 

Length. 

Diam. 

Width. 

ft.    in. 

ft.    in. 

E.P.M. 

in. 

in. 

R.P.M. 

tons. 

tons. 

4     0 

11     6 

30 

72 

12 

160 

6 

4 

40 

4     6 

13     0 

28 

84 

14 

140 

10 

6 

75 

5     6 

15     0 

25 

96 

15 

125 

15 

8 

100 

9     0 

6     0 

23 

96 

22 

130 

15 

10 

150 

Preliminary  mill  for  grinding  material  similar  to  limestone. 
Output  based  on  weight  of  raw  material  fed  into  mill.  Product 
to  contain  38  per  cent  moisture  and  pass  40  X  40  mesh  per 
siquare  inch. 

Steel  Ball  Tube  Mills  (Wet  Grinding) 


Weight  of 

Output 

Size  of  Mill. 

Driving  Pulleys. 

Steel 

per  hour. 

B.H.P. 

Balls. 

Limestone. 

Diam. 

Length. 

Diam. 

Width. 

ft.    in. 

ft.    in. 

R.P.M. 

in. 

in. 

R.P.M. 

tons. 

tons. 

3     6 

18      0 

34 

72 

12 

170 

6 

4 

40 

4     0 

22     0 

30 

84 

16 

150 

10 

6 

60 

4     6 

26     0 

28 

96 

18 

140 

15 

8 

100 

6     0 

26     0 

28 

96 

20 

160 

22 

11 

150 

Finishing  mill  for  grinding  material  similar  to  limestone. 
Output  based  on  weight  of  raw  material  fed  into  preliminary 
mill.  Product  to  contain  38  per  cent  moisture,  and  residue  not 
to  exceed  10  per  cent  on  180  X  180  mesh  per  square  inch, 
calculated  on  the  dried  slurry. 

The  above  type  of  finishing  mill  may,  instead  of  being  pro- 
vided with  steel  lining  plates  and  steel  grinding  balls,  be  arranged 
with  quartz  or  silex  lining  and  flint  pebbles  as  the  grinding 
medium,  in  which  case  the  outputs  will  be  somewhat  reduced. 
The  size  of  mill  in  this  case  for  the  same  output  per  hour  would 
generally  be  about  12  inches  larger  in  diameter. 


36 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


Ball  Mills  "  (Preliminary  Mill  Dry  Grinding) 


Weight 

Output  per  hour. 

Size  of  Mill. 

Driving  Pulleys. 

of 
Steel 
Balls. 

Coal 
60x60  sieve. 

Rotary 
Clinker 
75x75  sieve. 

B.H.P. 

Diam. 

Width. 

Diam. 

Width. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

R.P.M. 

in. 

in. 

R.P.M. 

cwt. 

tons. 

tons. 

3     6 

2     9 

30 

30 

4 

120 

5 

1 

i 

21 

4     6 

3     0 

30 

36 

5 

120 

8 

s 

i 

5 

5     6 

3     6 

27 

42 

6 

135 

12 

1 

f 

u 

6     6 

4     0 

27 

48 

u 

135 

16 

li 

12| 

7     6 

4     6 

25 

54 

9 

150 

25 

2 

li 

20 

8    6 

5     6 

21 

66 

10 

125 

40 

3 

2 

30 

9     6 

6     0 

21 

72 

12 

125 

55 

4£ 

3 

40 

10    0 

6     6 

20 

72 

14 

140 

65 

6 

3| 

50 

The  above  mills  are  of  the  type  arranged  with  a  series  of 
sieves  on  the  circumference,  and  may  be  installed  for  dry  grinding 
practically  all  classes  of  material  such  as  limestone,  basic  slag, 
coke,  quartz,  marble,  glass,  fire-clay,  coal,  bones,  charcoal,  etc. 

They  are  largely  used  on  cement  works  as  a  preliminary 
grinding  mill  for  cement  clinker,  and  with  modifications  may  be 
adopted  as  a  preliminary  mill  for  wet  grinding. 

"  Steel  Ball "  Tube  Mills  (Preliminary  Mill  Dry  Grinding) 


Size  of  Mill. 

Driving  Pulleys. 

Weight  of 
Steel 
Balls. 

Output 
per  hour. 
Rotary  Clinker. 
76X76  mesh. 

B.H.P. 

Diam. 

Length. 

Diam. 

Width. 

ft.    in. 

ft.    in. 

R.P.M. 

in. 

in. 

R.P.M. 

tons. 

tons. 

4     0 

11     0 

32 

'  78 

12 

175 

5 

3 

50 

4     6 

13     0 

28 

84 

14 

150 

10 

5 

100 

5     6 

15    0 

26 

96 

15 

125 

15 

7 

130 

"  Flint  Pebble  "  Tube  Mills  (Finishing  Mill  Dry  Grinding) 


Size  of  Mill. 

Driving  Pulleys. 

Weight  of 
Flint 
Pebbles. 

Output 
per  hour. 
Rotary  Clinker. 
180x180  mesh. 

B.H.P. 

Diam. 

Length. 

Diam. 

Width. 

ft.    in. 

ft.    in. 

R.P.M. 

in. 

in. 

R.P.M. 

tons. 

tons. 

3     0 

12     0 

32 

48 

8 

190 

2 

1 

20 

4     0 

16     0 

31 

48 

10 

190 

3£ 

li 

30 

4     6 

18     0 

28 

54 

12 

175    I         4£ 

2 

35 

5     0 

20    0 

27 

60 

14 

175    j         5£ 

3 

50 

5     0 

22     0 

28 

72 

12 

175 

6| 

4 

70 

5     6 

20     0 

25 

78 

14 

160 

6J 

4 

70 

5     6 

22     0 

28 

84 

14 

150 

8 

4J 

90 

6     0 

26     0 

28 

90 

16 

150 

12 

8 

120 

6    0 

30     0 

25 

96 

16 

150 

16 

10 

150 

DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION   OF  A   MODERN    PLANT    37 

Note. — When  grinding  cement  clinker  produced  by  the 
chamber  kiln  process  the  output  of  both  the  above  types  of 
grinding  mills  may,  owing  to  the  softer  nature  of  this  clinker, 
be  increased  approximately  50  per  cent. 

Belt  Conveyors 


Width  of 
Conveyor 
Belt. 

Conveyor  Drums 

Ratio 
of 
Gearing. 

Driving  Pulleys. 

Output 
per  hour. 

B.H.P. 

in. 

Diam. 
in. 

Width, 
in. 

R.P.M. 

Diam. 
in. 

Width, 
in. 

R.P.M. 

tons. 

12 

24 

14 

40 

4     1 

24 

3 

160 

10 

2 

16 

24 

18 

40 

4     1 

24 

3 

160 

25 

3 

20 

30 

22 

30 

4     1 

30 

4* 

120 

40 

4 

24 

30 

26 

30 

4     1 

30 

4* 

120 

55 

5 

30 

36 

33 

26 

4     1 

36 

6 

104 

90 

7* 

36 

45 

39 

20 

6     1 

45 

7* 

120 

140 

12 

42 

45 

45 

20 

6     1 

45 

?! 

120 

160 

15 

The  above  conveyors  are  of  the  type  fitted  with  troughing 
rolls  and  flat  return  idlers.  The  outputs  are  based  on  a  belt 
speed  of  240  feet  per  minute  when  dealing  with  material  such  as 
limestone,  crushed  to  2J  in.  cube,  or  similar  material  weighing 
about  1  cwt.  per  cubic  foot. 

The  angle  of  inclination  should  not  exceed  22°  under 
favourable  circumstances,  and  where  possible  it  is  advisable  not 
to  exceed  15°  to  obtain  the  best  results. 


Screw  Conveyors 


Screw. 

Driving  Pulley. 

Output 
per  hour. 
Cement. 

B.H.P. 

Diam. 

Diam, 

Width. 

inches. 

R.P.M. 

inches. 

inches. 

R.P.M. 

tons. 

6 

90 

18 

4 

90 

2* 

i 

8 

70 

24 

4 

70 

5 

1 

10 

60 

30 

4 

60 

8 

1* 

12 

50 

36 

6 

50 

10 

2 

14 

40 

48 

6 

40 

15 

3 

16 

30 

60 

6 

30 

20 

4 

18 

30 

60 

8 

20 

25 

5 

The  above  figures  are  for  conveyors  not  exceeding  50  feet  in 
length,  driven  direct  without  the  introduction  of  gearings.  Where 
longer  lengths  are  employed  it  is  advisable  that  the  final  drive 
should  be  through  reduction  gearings. 

B.H.P.  to  drive  conveyors:  Length  in  feet  X  output  per 
hour  in  tons  X  '004. 


38 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


Bucket  Elevators  with  Gearing 
(up  to  50  ft.  centres  of  drums) 


Width 
of 
Buckets. 

Top  and  Bottom 
Drums. 

Ratio 
of 
Gearing. 

Driving  Pulley. 

Bucket 
Speed 
ft.  per 
minute. 

Output 
per  hour. 

Approx. 

in. 

Diam. 
in. 

Width, 
in. 

R.P.M. 

Diam. 
in. 

Width, 
in. 

R.P.M. 

tons 

B.H.P. 

4 

18 

16 

40 

4     1 

18 

3 

160 

188 

2 

1* 

5 

18 

7 

40 

4     1 

1 

8 

160 

188 

3 

2 

6 

24 

9 

30 

5     1 

24 

4 

150 

198 

4 

2 

8 

24 

11 

30 

5     1 

24 

4 

150 

198 

6 

21 

10 

36 

14 

20 

6     1 

30 

5 

120 

188 

8 

3 

12 

36 

16 

20 

6     1 

30 

5 

120 

188 

12 

4 

14 

42 

18 

18 

6     1 

36 

5 

108 

196 

15 

4 

16 

42 

20 

18 

6     1 

36 

5 

108 

196 

21 

5 

I 

The  above  outputs  per  hour  are  based  on  the  assumption  of 
the  buckets  being  only  40  per  cent  full. 

The  above  figures  are  based  on  handling  fine  material,  such  as 
ground  coal,  rotary  clinker,  cement,  etc.,  and  the  bucket  speeds 
given  are  suitable  for  these  materials.  Top  and  bottom  drums 
should  always  be  made  as  large  as  practicable  to  reduce  risk 
of  bucket  fasteners  pulling  through  and  belts  cracking  across  a 
line  through  the  fasteners,  which  will  happen,  due  to  continual 
bending,  where  small  diameter  pulleys  are  employed.  Belts  must 
be  selected  with  due  regard  to  conditions  of  working  and  where 
the  material  to  be  handled  is  at  all  hot  ;  balata  or  solutioned  belts 
should  not  be  employed.  In  these  cases  solid  woven  belts, 
asbestos  treated  and  having  strengthened  edges,  should  be 
adopted. 

Bucket  belts  should  always  be  wider  than  the  buckets  (in 
large  sizes  at  least  2  in.  wider),  so  as  to  keep  the  holes  for  the 
bucket  belts  as  far  as  possible  from  the  edges  of  the  belt. 

The  top  and  bottom  drums  should  also  be  from  1  in.  to  2  in. 
wider  than  the  belt,  and  well  "crowned'"  to  ensure  the  belt 
does  not  work  to  one  side,  due  to  oscillation  which  may  take  place. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE    ROTARY    KILN 

PROBABLY  no  other  industry  has  developed  so  rapidly  in  the 
whole  world  generally,  and  the  United  States  particularly,  as 
the  Portland  Cement  industry  ;  and  this  development  is 
undoubtedly  due  to  the  rotary  kiln.  Not  only  has  the  quality  of 
the  product  been  raised,  but  the  cost  of  manufacture  has 
correspondingly  decreased,  and  with  these  factors  at  work  the 
industry  was  bound  to  grow  by  leaps  and  bounds. 

The  following  figures  will  show  the  output  of  cement  in  the 
United  States  for  various  years  before  and  after  the  establish- 
ment of  the  rotary  kiln  as  a  successful  machine  :  — 


Year.  ''  Remarka. 


1889  250,000  80  per  cent  burned  with  the  ordinary  kiln. 

1890  335,000 

1896  1,543,000  This  year  saw  the  success  of  the  rotary  kiln 

firmly  established.  Oil  fuel  used. 

1900  8,500,000  Pulverized  coal  was  used  as  fuel,  90  per  cent 

burned  in  rotary  kiln. 

1911  80,000,000^ 

1912  88,000,OOG  |_  Practically  all  burnt  in  the  rotary  kiln.     Fuel, 

1913  92,097,131  j  pulverized  coal  and  crude  oil. 

1914  88,230,170j 

These  figures  definitely  show  that  the  development  of  the 
industry  has  been  contemporaneous  with  and,  we  may  assume, 
due  to  that  of  the  rotary  kiln. 

Originally  of  English  conception  and  design,  it  remained  for 
American  cement  engineers  to  modify,  improve,  and  afterwards 
utilize  the  rotary  kiln  for  burning  Portland  Cement,  and  to-day 
the  United  States  of  America  burns  practically  all  her  cement 
in  this  way,  Germany  70  per  cent,  and  Britain,  the  home  of  the 
kiln,  about  60  per  cent. 

The  idea  of  a  rotating  furnace  was  first  conceived  by  Cramp  ton 
as  far  back  as  1877,  but  no  practical  application  was  made  till 
Ransome  patented  his  design  in  England  in  1885. 

That  gentleman's  ideas  were  certainly  very  modest  in  view 
of  recent  developments,  for  the  largest  Ransome  kiln  ever  built 
measured  only  26  feet  long  and  5  feet  in  diameter.  Truly  great 
things  had  but  small  beginnings. 

He  fired  his  kiln  with  "  producer  gas",  but  no  success  attended 
his  efforts,  for  he  experienced  great  difficulties  with  the  lining, 
a  very  vexed  question  "with  many  manufacturers  even  to-day. 


40  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

Still,  he  set  others  thinking  on  the  subject,  and  the  next 
development  took  place  in  the  United  States,  at  East  Kingston, 
New  York  State.  Here  Mr.  D.  Navarro,  after  experimenting 
for  some  time,  organized  a  cement  company,  called  the  "  Keystone 
Cement  Company",  and  located  in  the  Lehigh  Valley.  A  plant 
was  erected,  and  a  rotary  kiln  installed  of  dimensions  40  feet 
in  length  and  6  feet  in  diameter. 

Much  experimental  work  was  undertaken,  and  with  varying 
success  for  a  period  of  two  years.  A,t  the  end  of  this  time  the 
Keystone  Cement  Company  was  reorganized  under  the  name  of 
the  "  Atlas  Portland  Cement  Company  ",  and  they  are  to-day 
the  largest  cement  producers  in  the  world. 

Mr.  H.  J.  Seaman  was  appointed  general  superintendent, 
and  Mr.  Hurry,  an  Englishman,  the  engineer  in  charge  of  the 
plant.  By  united  efforts,  these  gentlemen  carried  on  an  extended 
series  of  experiments  lasting  several  years.  During  the  early 
part  of  the  period  they  used  petroleum  las  fuel,  but  this  proving 
prohibitive  from  the  point  of  view  of  cost  they  turned  their 
attention  to  pulverized  coal,  which  proved  to  be  much  less 
expensive  on  account  of  the  low  cost  of  bituminous  coal  as 
compared  with  the  oil.  This  form  of  fuel  is  now  generally 
adopted. 

After  a  few  years  of  successful  working,  the  Atlas  Co. 
constructed  another  plant  in  the  Lehigh  Valley,  and  installed 
fourteen  rotary  kilns  ;  and  from  this  time  onward  the  use  of  the 
furnace  has  advanced  with  marvellous  rapidity. 

A  year  or  two  after  the  erection  of  the  second  Atlas  Factory, 
that  genius,  the  world's  greatest  inventor,  Thomas  A.  Edison, 
embarked  in  the  cement  industry.  With  such  a  man  interested 
enormous  developments  were  bound  to  follow,  and  they  did  in  a 
way  the  pioneers  never  dreamed. 

Hitherto  the  largest  kilns  had  been  60  feet  long  and  6  feet  in 
diameter  ;  the  results  Edison  attained  in  his  New  York  City  plant 
were  marvellous. 

The  Edison  kiln  was  150  feet  long  and  reported  to  yield  from 
340  to  370  barrels  of  cement  daily,  with  a  fuel  consumption  of 
85  Ib.  of  coal  per  barrel.  The  old  60ft.  kilns  usually  gave 
from  160  barrels  to  180  barrels  daily  when  working  on  a  dry 
limestone-clay  mixture,  using  120  Ib.  to  160  Ib.  of  coal  per 
barrel. 

Such  a  striking  contrast  was  too  remarkable  to  admit  of  any 
delay.  Instantly  all  owners  of  rotary  kilns  began  to  consider  the 
possibility  of  lengthening  their  kilns. 

Success  being  demonstrated  with  these  enlarged  kilns,  their 
adoption  is  now  universal. 

Yet  the  development  of  the  rotary  kiln  has  by  no  means 
reached  the  limit  of  perfection.  Quite  recently  kilns  have  been 


THE    ROTARY    KILN  41 

constructed  in  the  United  States  250  feet  long  and  12  feet  in 
diameter,  but  although  the  output  has  been  very  large,  great 
trouble  has  been  experienced  with  the  lining,  probably  on  account 
of  so  large  an  arch  being  subjected  to  such  high  temperatures. 

Several  kilns  are  now  successfully  running  in  England,  of 
lengths  varying  from  200  feet  to  230  feet  by  9  feet  diameter, 
in  connection  with  the  wet  process  and  producing  from  170  to 
190  tons  of  cement  clinker  in  each  twenty-four  hours.  They  have 
a  coal  consumption  of  from  26  to  30  per  cent  with  slurry  con- 
taining from  40  to  42  per  cent  of  water. 

As  originally  designed  the  rotary  kiln  was  a  plain  cylinder, 
and  the  majority  of  those  running  to-day  are  of  the  same  con- 
struction. A  modification  of  this  type  has,  however,  been  recently 
introduced  with  an  enlarged  firing  zone.  It  is  asserted  that  by 
this  device  the  output  of  the  kiln  is  increased  and  the  coal 
consumption  lessened.  These  are  debatable  points,  but  one 
advantage  is  already  proved.  You  can  carry  a  very  thick  coating 
with  a  reduced  tendency  to  "  ring!  up  ",  because  you  can  burn 
out  your  ring  without  fear  of  burning  out  your  lining. 

The  clinker  cooling  cylinders  are  placed  under  the  kilns  in 
Europe.  The  clinker  itself,  leaving  the  kiln  at  a  temperature 
of  about  2.000°  F.,  falls  into  another  rotating  cylinder,  which 
is  so  arranged  that  the  air  for  combustion  passes  up  through  the 
cooler  into  the  kiln.  Now,  the  clinker,  when  taken  from  the 
cooler,  has  a  temperature  of  only  150°  to  200°  F.,  so  that  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  sensible  heat  has  been  extracted  by  the  air  and 
returned  to  the  firing  zone. 

One  thing,  however,  is  of  vital  importance.  The  continuous 
running  of  the  kiln  is  essential,  and  especially  so  now  that  they 
have  reached  such  huge  dimensions;  Cessation  of  work  for  one 
hour  only,  means  a  very  great  loss  to  the  manufacturer. 

CONSTRUCTION 

The  kiln,  after  cjl,  is  but  a  plain  cylindrical  tube,  but  it 
is  absolutely  imperative  that  only  the  best  materials  and  workman- 
ship should  be  used  in  its  construction.  The  shell,  where  the 
roller  bearing  rings  and  girth  gear  are  secured,  must  be  heavily 
reinforced  by  additional  plating  to  ensure  stability  under  the 
heavy  stress.  Rollers,  bearings,  shafts,  and  driving  mechanism 
must  be  strong  and  perfectly  fitted.  In  a  word,  design,  materials, 
and  workmanship  must  be  of  the  highest  standards  of  excellence 
if  economy  and  low  maintenance  are  to  be  secured. 

The  kiln  is  supported  by  four  or  five  sets  of  heavy  roller 
bearings  according  to  the  length  of  the  kiln,  the  usual  pitch  being 
from  30  to  35  feet,  and  the  kiln  is  driven  by  a  train  of  gear 
wheels,  machine-cut  except  as  to  the  girth  gear  and  pinion. 


42  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

Speed  is  controlled  by  regulators,  from  1  to  2j  revolutions  per 
minute,  to  suit  the  condition  of  the  burning1  material. 

The  standard  inclination  is  one  in  twenty-five,  so  that  material 
fed  into  one  end  will  move  by  gravity  to  the  other. 

Large  dust  chambers  constructed  of  brick  are  provided,  into 
which  the  end  of  the  kiln  projects.  It  is  a  good  practice  to 
have  a  hanging  brick  curtain  wiall  in  the  centre  of  these  dust 
chambers,  which  tends  to  retard  the  current  of  heated  gases,  and 
thus  deposits  most  of  the  fine  dust,  which  otherwise  would  be  lost 
through  the  chimney  which  is  situated  immediately  beyond. 

Each  kiln  should  have  a  separate  chimney  if  possible,  and 
be  lined  with  fire-brick  60  to  80  feet  up,  with  an  air-space 
between  the  chimney  wall  and  lining. 

The  lower  end  of  the  kiln  projects  in  a  movable  hood,  the 
bottom  of  which  covers  the  rectangular  hole  in  the  floor  leading 
from  the  cooler-  and  conveying  hot  air  direct  from  the  cooler 
to  the  kiln.  The  powdered  coal  from  the  coal-feed  pipe  carries 
with  it  a  certain  quantity  of  air,  also  a  certain  quantity  from 
around  the  hood,  and  thus  supports  combustion.  The  front 
protects  the  burner  and  reduces  to  a  minimum  the  admission  of 
cold  air  to  the  kiln. 

Above  the  firing  floor,  at  least  15  feet  from  end  of  kiln  in 
a  horizontal  line,  is  fixed  a  large  steel  bin  (lined  with  concrete) 
for  supplying  the  kiln  with  fuel  (capacity  for  at  least  twelve 
hours) . 

This  coal-dust  is  fed  through  a  double-flight  screw  conveyor 
from  the  storage  bin  to  a  blow-pipe,  where  it  meets  a  current 
of  air  supplied  by  a  sirocco  fan. 

The  amount  of  both  coal  and  air  can  be  regulated  by  means 
of  speeders  by  the  burner  in  charge. 

The  coal-feed  pipe  extends  through  the  hood  (which  closes 
the  end  of  the  kiln)  and  inside  the  kiln  about  6  inches  ;  through 
the  pipe  is  blown  all  of  the  fuel  which  supplies  the  heat  necessary 
to  burn  the  mixture. 

When  starting  a  kiln,  a  few  old  cement  bags  soaked  in 
paraffin  are  secured  on  the  long  steel  clinker  shovel  and  ignited 
and  placed  near  the  coal-feed  pipe  ;  a  current  of  coal-dust  is 
turned  on  and  ignited.  In  half  an  hour  the  kiln  is  hot  enough 
to  cause  spontaneous  combustion,  and  an  intense  heat  of  2,800 
to  3,000  degrees  F.  is  maintained  in  the  kiln. 

This  intense  flame  is  projected  on  the  raw  material.  As  the 
raw  material  travels  down  the  kiln  chemical  changes,  brought 
about  by  the  terrific  heat,  take  place,  viz.  : — • 

(1)  Evaporation  of  the  water  in  the  mixture. 

(2)  Dissociation  of  combined  water  and  loss  of  organic  matter 

in  the  clay. 


THE    ROTARY    KILN  43 

(3)  Dissociation  of  sulphates  and  alkalies. 

(4)  Dissociation  of  carbonates. 

(5)  Chemical  combination  (incipient  fusion)  of  silica,  alumina, 

and  lime  in  the  hot  zone  of  the  kiln. 

LININGS  FOR  ROTARY  KILNS 

The  lining-  of  the  rotary  kiln  is  of  the  utmost  importance, 
and  great  care  should  not  only  be  exercised  in  selecting-  the  class 
of  brick,  but  to  see  that  it  is  well  fitted  in  the  kiln  in  order  that 
success  may  be  achieved. 

Fortunately,  our  British  manufacturers  are  closely  studying 
the  question,  and  are  now  producing  an  excellent  fire-brick  equal 
to  any  that  can  be  obtained  abroad  ;  they  are  tackling  the 
proposition  in  a  scientific  way,  and  continued  improvements  may 
be  expected.  But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  lining 
failures  are  not  to  be  attributed  to  the  bricks  themselves.  It 
may  be  due  to  lack  of  care  in  constructing  and  laying  in  the 
work.  The  bricks  should  be  made  to  fit  the  radius  of  the  kiln,  and 
put  in  dry  without  fire-clay  or  cement.  The  last  brick  in  the 
circle,  being  the  key  to  the  whole  ring,  should  be  well  driven. 
The  whole  ring  should  be  afterwards  grouted  up  with  neat  cement, 
the  greatest  care  being  taken  to  fill  up  all  the  interstices. 

But  even  if  the  bricks  are  perfectly  fitted  to  the  kiln  and  of 
the  best  composition  and  suitable  for  the  material  to  be  burnt, 
if  the  rotary  kiln  has  not  been  well  designed  to  ensure  absolute 
stability,  especially  at  the  roller  bearing  rings  and  girth  gear, 
trouble  will  be  always  experienced  at  these  positions  with  the 
lining.  The  shell  should  also  be  of  sufficient  thickness  to  prevent 
torsion,  which  also  reduces  the  life  of  the  lining. 

Spalling  (which  is  a  popping-off  of  large  pieces  of  the  brick) 
occurs  owing  to  the  face  of  the  bricks,  becoming  vitrified  by  the 
intense  heat,  being  absorbed  faster  than  they  can  conduct  it  to  a 
cooler  zone,  and  the  elasticity  of  that  portion  is  lost,  and  further 
heating  or  cooling  taking  place  or  movement  in  a  kiln  structurally 
weak,  the  vitrified  section  drops  off,  which  otherwise  would  have 
been  held  by  compression  of  the  bricks  themselves  in  a  rigid  kiln. 

Assuming  you  have  a  strongly  constructed  kiln,  lining  blocks 
of  correct  composition  and  well  fitted,  and  the  question  of  fuel 
considered,  there  is  no  reason  why  a  run  of  six  months  should 
not  be  obtained  even  where  a  highly  siliceous  material  is  being 
burnt,  and  even  nine  months  with  aluminous  material,  whilst  in 
the  upper  portions  of  the  kiln  it  should,  with  slight  repairs,  render 
efficient  service  for  years. 

Most  of  the  fire-bricks  manufactured  in  Great  Britain  are  of 
an  acid  character  and  high  in  silica,  as  the  following  analysis 
will  show  :  — 


44 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


i. 

Combined  silica  . 
Alumina 
Oxide  of  iron 
Carbonate  of  lime 
Carbonate  of  magnesia 
Alkalies,  etc. 
Water  and  organic  matter 


80-76 
11-83 
2-10 
1-00 
1-26 
nil 
2-69 

99-64 


II. 

Silica  . 
Alumina 
Ferric  oxide 
Lime  .     ;    T 
Magnesia 
Sulphuric  anhydride 


26-24 

12-46 

1-06 

nil 
nil 
nil 


99-76 


In  the  United  States  the  high  alumina  one  is  the  standard, 
and  having-  a  composition  within  the  limits  of  the  following 
table  :  — 


Constituent. 
Silica 
Alumina  . 
Ferric  oxide 
Lime 
Magnesia  . 


Maximum 
Percentage. 
55-0 
47-0 
3-0 
1-0 
1-0 


Minimum 

Percentage. 

50-0 

40-5 

2-0 

n.d. 

n.d. 


The  operation  of  burning  the  clinker  is  a  skilled  process, 
and  none  but  a  capable  and  experienced  hand  should  be  employed 
as  a  burner.  He  must  know  exactly  how  the  clinker  should  be 
burnt,  and  possess  a  keen  eye  for  "  heat  ",  to  enable  him  to  know 
when  the  kilns  are  hot  enough  to  properly  clinker  the  raw 
material. 

Coating  a  freshly  lined  kiln,  and  patching  also,  need  a  skill 
which  is  only  acquired  by  much  practice,  and  should  in  no  circum- 
stances be  entrusted  to  a  mere  novice. 

Though  the  rotary  kiln  has  now  firmly  established  itself  as 
the  most  economical  and  efficient  form  of  mechanism  for  the  pro- 
duction of  Portland  Cement,  many  of  the  old  stationary  kilns, 
both  of  the  intermittent  and  continuous  varieties,  are  still  in 
constant  use  in  Europe  ;  nor  is  their  product  in  any  way  inferior 
to  that  produced  by  the  modern  method.  But  to  ensure  this  good 
clinker  and  reduce  the  quantity  of  under-burned  material,  the 
lumps  of  dry  slip  must  be  reduced  to  a  uniform  size  of  from 
90  cubic  inches  to  100  cubic  inches,  and  the  coke  must  be  no 
larger  than  a  hen's  egg.  Kilns  charged  with  dry  slip  and  coke 
of  irregular  sizes  cool  very  slowly  and  remain  for  a  longer  period 
in  the  incandescent  state,  and  the  result  is  the  clinker 
spontaneously  crumbles  to  dust. 

But  increased  competition  in  the  cement  trade  is  causing  the 
manufacturer  to  put  forth  every  endeavour  to  reduce  the  cost  of 
production,  and  although  at  present  many  proprietors  do  not  see 
their  way  to  modernize  their  plants  by  the  adoption  of  the  rotary 
system,  yet  the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  the  stationary  kiln, 
be  it  intermittent  or  continuous,  will  give  place  to  the  rotary  kiln. 

For  the  rotary  kiln  process  not  only  produces  a  more  regularly 


PLATE  XXX. 


INTERMITTENT    KILN    ERECTED   BY   WILLIAM   ASPDIN 
AT   NORTHFLEET,  KENT. 


[To  face  page  44. 


THE    HOTAEY    KILN  45 

burnt  clinker,  but  it  is  unquestionably  more  economical  than  the 
stationary  kiln,  having,  as  it  does,  the  following  advantages  :  — 

(1)  A  continuous  running-. 

(2)  An  automatically  regulated  flow  of  raw  materials  to  the 

kiln. 

(3)  Control  of  raw  materials  in  their  passage  through  the 

kiln.  This  is  regulated  by  the  revolution  of  the  kiln, 
which  may  vary  fram  one  revolution  in  2j  minutes  to 
one  revolution  in  fifty  or  sixty  seconds. 

(4)  Complete  control  of  calcination. 

(5)  Eeduced  labour  costs. 

(6)  A    more    uniform    clinker    with    greater    cementitious 

properties. 

ROTARY    KILN    FUEL 
COAL,  ITS  STORAGE,  DRYING,  AND  GRINDING 
The  fuel  used  in  rotary  kiln  practice  is  pulverized  coal,  crude 
oil,  natural  gas,  and  producer  gas. 

Coal 

Coal  must  be  of  the  bituminous  class,  its  suitability  being 
governed  by  the  percentage  of  ash  it  contains  for  the  raw 
materials  to  be  calcined  to  prevent  clinkering  rings  forming 
immediately  beyond  the  clinkering  zone.  The  more  siliceous  the 
raw  material  the  higher  may  be  the  percentage  of  ash,  but  with 
aluminous  materials  the  ash  should  be  kept  low. 

Average  Analysis  of  Bituminous  Coal 
Volatile  matter       .         .         .         .         35  per  cent 
Fixed  carbon  .          .          .          .         53         ,, 

Ash 8 

Anthracite  coals  are  high  in  fixed  carbon  and  low  in  volatile 
matter  ;  although  giving  high  temperatures  will  not  burn  well 
in  the  rotary  kiln,  being  slow  to  ignite,  but  may  be  mixed  with 
success  with  "the  bituminous  class  as  high  as  30  per  cent  or  even 
more,  but  great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  two  classes  of  coal 
are  thoroughly  mixed  and  finely  pulverized  ;  if  by  the  use  of 
anthracite  the  coating  from  the  kiln  lining  is  removed,  or  the 
fire-bricks  themselves  are  reduced  rapidly  by  the  abrasive  action 
of  the  flame,  the  percentage  of  anthracite  must  be  reduced. 

Storage 

Coal,  if  possible,  should  be  stored  under  cover,  and  for  an 
output  of  3,000  tons  of  cement  weekly  storage  capacity  should 
be  provided  for  three  weeks'  supply,  say  3,000  tons,  but  storage 
will  be  controlled  by  local  conditions  of  delivery.  Coal  can  be 
economically  handled  by  locomotive  crane  and  grab. 


46  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

Crushing 

Provision  should  be  made  for  crushing  the  coal  before  drying, 
as  it  is  not  always  possible  to  get  the  slack,  and  run-of-mine 
coal  will  have  to  be  dealt  with. 

Grinding 

Coal  is  a  difficult  material  to  pulverize  finely.  The  mills  are 
generally  similar  to  those  used  in  grinding  the  raw  materials 
or  cement  clinker  ball  and  tube,  Griffin,  Fuller-Lehigh,  etc. 
Capacities  of  these  mills  are  given  in  the  description. 

As  the  drying  and  grinding  of  coal  is  attended  with  a  certain 
amount  of  danger  from  fire  ;and  explosion,  these  operations  should 
be  performed  in  buildings  detached  from  the  remainder  of  the 
plant.  Ample  ventilation  and  extensive  head-room  should  be 
provided.  No  coal-dust  must  be  allowed  to  collect,  nor  should 
naked  lights  be  permitted  at  any  time  near  the  mill. 

Nor  is  the  only  risk  attendant  on  the  use  of  coal.  There  is 
always  the  possibility  that  heaps  of  coal  may  generate  heat  and 
take  fire. 

THE  AERO  PULVERIZER 

The  Aero  Pulverizer  is  a  complete  equipment  for  supplying 
pulverized  coal  to  rotary  kilns,  rotary  dryers,  boilers,  furnaces, 
etc.,  making  practicable  the  highest  efficiency  obtainable  from 
burning  ooal.  It  makes  coal  burn  like  a  gas,  with  a  flame,  the 
physical  and  chemical  character  of  which  is  regulable — a  flame 
that  may  be  elongated  or  shortened,  thus  placing  the  zone  of 
highest  temperature  where  needed — a  flame  that  may  be  made 
oxidizing,  reducing  or  neutral,  as  occasion  may  require. 

The  coal  is  burned  as  pulverized,  and  there  is  no  storage  of 
the  powder  with  its  attendant  hazard.  Artificial  drying  before 
pulverizing  is  not  necessary  if  the  coal  supply  be  sheltered  from 
rain  land  snow.  Where  the  Aero  is  used  it  is  wholly  a  furnace 
question  whether  a  dryer  should  be  installed  ;  it  is  not  at  all  a 
pulverizing  or  storage  question. 

Labour  is  reduced  t6  a  minimum. 

Slack  coal  at  low  cost  yields  its  last  B.T.U. 

The  Aero  Pulverizer  approaches  the  subject  of  coal-burning 
from  the  theoretical  side,  and  therefore  pulverizes  the  coal  to  an 
impalpable  powder,  and  surrounds  each  of  its  minute  particles 
with  the  amount  of  air  which  will  furnish  just  the  required 
oxygen.  The  fineness  of  the  pulverization  may  be  regulated  by 
attention  to  the  dampers  which  control  the  movement  axially 
of  the  air  within  the  machine.  If  that  movement  is  slow  the 
centrifugal  force  keeps  all  the  coarse  particles  at  the  periphery,, 
but  if  the  movement  axially  is  rapid  it  in  part  overcomes  centri- 
fugal force  and  draws  through  the  machine  a  coarser  grade  of 


PLATE  XXXIV. 


AERO   PULVERIZER. 


[To  face  page  46. 


THE    ROTARY    KILN  47 

material.  Powdered  coal  and  air  in  regulable  proportions  are 
intimately  mixed  in  the  pulverizer,  and  the  mixture  reaches  the 
furnace  instantly  it  reaches  the  pulverizer.  Thus  the  Aero  system 
is  emancipated  from  not  only  the  dryer,  but  the  powdered  coal 
conveyor  apparatus,  the  storage  bin,  the  mixing-  chamber,  and  the 
feeding  apparatus  with  the  power  units  required  for  the  several 
operations,  which -are  incident  to  all  central  station  pulverizing 
systems.  There  is  no  smoke,  no  carbon  in  the  ash,  no  C  O  in  the 
flue  gases,  and  only  a  trace  of  0  ;  no  appreciable  excess  air  is 
admitted  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  products  of  combustion . 
There  is  no  opening  of  doors,  no  intermittent  firing,  no  banked 
fires,  no  delay  in  meeting  a  sudden  overload. 

The  efficiency  of  heat  from  combustion  is  directly  as  the 
rapidity  of  combustion.  The  decaying  log  is  a  form  of  com- 
bustion so  slow  that  its  efficiency  is  not  noticeable.  The  greatest 
efficiency  and  rapidity  is  obtained  by  bringing  each  atom  of 
carbon  in  contact  with  two  atoms  of  oxygen,  and  no  more,  under 
conditions  permitting  chemical  union,  and  the  conditions  produced 
by  the  Aero  measurably  approach  the  theoretical  in  this  respect. 

The  Aero  Pulverizer  consists  of  four  interiorly  communicating 
chambers  of  successively  increasing  diameters,  in  which  revolve 
[paddles  on  arms  of  correspondingly  increasing  lengths.  The 
separate  chambers  are  in  fact  separate  pulverizers  on  a  single 
shaft,  each  succeeding  pulverizer  having  greater  speed  at  its 
periphery  and  therefore  greater  powejr  for  fine  grinding.  An 
additional  chamber  contains  a  fan,  the  function  of  which  is  to 
draw  the  more  finely  pulverized  material  successively  from  one 
chamber  to  the  next,  and,  finally,  to  deliver  it  through  the  pipe 
connexion  to  the  furnace  under  the  impetus  of  a  forced  draft. 
The  iseparate  pulverizers  and  fan  are  enclosed  in  one  steel  cylinder. 
A  regulable  feed  mechanism  accurately  controls  and  varies  the 
quantity  of  coal  admitted  to  and  delivered  by  the  machine.  The 
feed  mechanism  is  exact  and  uniform  in  its  operation,  and  is 
easily  adjusted  to  meet  even  minute  variations  in  the  fuel  require- 
ment. Two  regulable  inlets  in  the  feed  mefchanism  admit  the 
air  required  for  fine  grinding.  An  auxiliary  inlet  between  the 
last  work  chamber  and  the  fan,  controlled  by  a  damper,  admits 
such  additional  air  as  it  required  for  combustion.  The  air 
dampers  with  the  feed  give  perfect  regulation  of  the  flame  within 
a  wide  range. 

CRUDE  OIL 

Crude  oil  is  an  excellent  fuel,  and  the  only  consideration 
which  would  rule  it  out  is  its  cost.  Should  that  prove  satis- 
factory, then,  from  all  points  of  view,  it  is  preferable. 

It  can  be  transported  with  much  greater  facility  than  any 
other  fuel. 


48  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

No  coal-drying-,  grinding,  or  conveying  machinery  are 
required. 

The  rotary  kiln  can  receive  its  supply  of  fuel  in  a  minimum 
of  time  by  the  mere  turning1  of  a  valve.  The  ease  with  which 
the  supply  can  be  regulated  is  another  important  factor  in  its 
favour. 

But  these  facts  are  subservient  to  the  question  of  the  economy 
of  the  fuel  itself. 

Given  ordinary  conditions,  four  barrels  of  oil  would  do  the 
work  of  1  ton  of  coal. 

These  four  barrels  of  15°  oil  would  weigh  l,348lb.,  and  the 
total  heating  value  at  18,360  B.T.U.  per  Ib.  would  be 
24,739,280  B.T.U,  On  the  other  hand,  1  ton  (2,240  Ib.)  of 
coal  at  12,600  B.T.U.  per  Ib.  would  have  the  heating-  value 
28,224,000  B.T.U. 

Thus  the  four  barrels  of  oil  with  a  smaller  heating  value 
will  do  the  same  amount  of  work  as  the  ton  of  coal  with  a  much 
larger  heat  value,  due  to  the  fact  that  with  the  oil  fuel  we 
liave  a  much  more  perfect  combustion. 

NATURAL  GAS 

Natural  gas  where  obtainable  is  of  course  the  cheapest  form 
of  fuel,  but  at  present  it  is  found  in  few  localities,  the  State  of 
Kansas,  U.S.A.,  being-  the  only  one  known  to  the  author. 

PRODUCER  GAS 

Where  producer  gas  has  been  tried  in  the  Western  States  it  has 
been  found  successful,  and  with  the  development  of  the  producer 
a  more  extended  use  for  firing-  the  rotary  kiln  may  be  expected. 

COOLING,  STORING,  AND  GRINDING  THE  CLINKER 
The  cement  clinker  leaves  the  kiln  at  a  temperature  of  about 
2,000°  F.,  and  the  method  of  cooling  it  now  generally  adopted 
in  modern  practice  is  a  rotating-  cylinder  situated  immediately 
under  the  kiln,  and  so  arranged  that  most  of  the  air  required  for 
combustion  in  the  kiln  must  pass  through  the  cooler  ;  lifting 
plates  are  provided  and  placed  longitudinally  around  the  internal 
periphery,  and  these  lift  the  clinker  and  let  it  fall  in  showers 
through  the  current  of  cold  air  in  its  passage  to  the  kiln.  It  is 
a  very  effective  method  of  cooling  the  clinker  ;  a  large  percentage 
of  the  heat  is  recovered  and  returned  to  the  kiln. 

The  clinker  leaves  the  cooler  at  a  temperature  varying  from 
150°  to  200°  F. 

Storing  the  Clinker 

The  clinker  at  the  above  temperature  can  readily  be  conveyed 
to  the  clinker  store,  which  must  in  all  cases  be  provided  and 
roofed  over,  or  great  trouble  will  be  experienced  not  only  with  the 


THE    RO.TARY    KILN  49 

setting  time  of  the  cement  but  with  grinding-  mills  with  wet 
clinker. 

Storing  the  clinker  for  a  week  or  so  with  a  small  percentage 
of  water  added,  say  1  per  cent,  as  the  clinker  is  leaving  the  cooler, 
gradually  combines  chemically  with  the  constituents  of  the  clinker, 
reducing  the  quick  initial  setting  of  the  cement,  and  is  certainly 
more  easily  pulverized  if  so  treated. 

The  cement  mill  is  run  for  5J  days  in  the  week,  and  storage 
accommodation  is  therefore  necessary  for  the  clinker,  as  the  kilns 
are  run  continuously  unless  under  repair. 

Grinding  the  Clinker 

The  machinery  and  power  required  for  grinding  the  clinker 
are  very  closely  the  same  as  that  required  for  grinding  the  hard 
raw  materials  for  the  same  output.  This  will  at  first  appear 
improbable,  the  clinker  being  much  harder  to  pulverize,  but  it 
must  be  considered  as  mentioned  under  grinding,  that  for  every 
ton  of  cement  clinker  1/6  tons  of  raw  materials  are  required,  so 
with  the  several  types  of  grinding  machinery  the  one  giving 
the  best  finished  product  with  low  cost  of  repairs  and  less  power 
consumption  will  appeal  to  the  manufacturer. 

DUST  COLLECTORS 

For  removing  and  collecting  dust  from  the  rotary  kiln  firing 
floor,  coal-drying,  coal  and  clinker  grinding  buildings,  it  is 
necessary  to  install  a  dust-collector  plant.  Essentially  the 
Sturtevant  system  consists  in  collecting  the  light  dust,  which 
•would  ordinarily  be  wasted,  by  currents  of  air  at  the  various 
points  on  the  machines  comprising  the  grinding  plant  where 
the  dust  is  produced  and  conveying  it  to  a  central  "collector". 

For  this  purpose  the  machines  are  fitted  with  suitable  hoods 
and  connected  to  a  piping  system,  which  is  itself  coupled  to 
the  fan  producing  the  air.  The  dust-laden  air  is  discharged  by 
the  fan  into  a  suitable  dust  collector  from  which  the  purified  air 
escapes,  whilst  the  dust  is  automatically  shaken  down  into  a 
worm  conveyor,  which  delivers  it  to  the  grit  hopper  of  the  tube 
mill,  so  that  the  whole  of  it  is  recovered,  and  in  passing  through 
the  tube  mill  is  intimately  mixed  with  the  remainder  of  the 
finished  cement. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  addition  to  the  market  value  of  the  dust 
recovered  in  this  manner  there  are  other  advantages  and  economies 
obtained  in  the  operation  and  upkeep  of  the  grinding  plantx, 
directly  due  to  the  installation  of  a  dust-collecting  plant. 

For  instance,  as  all  the  machines  work  under  a  slight  air 
suction,  the  disadvantage  sometimes  experienced  in  connexion 
with  dust  entering  bearings  and  working  parts  is  entirely 
eliminated,  and,  further,  the  passage  of  air  through  the  machines, 


50  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

due  to  the  fan  suction,  has  a  cooling  effect  on  the  working-  parts, 
and  at  the  same  time  immediately  carries  off  any  excess  moisture 
present  in  the  material  being  ground.  Any  openings  or  clearances 
in  the  machines,  which  ordinarily  would  allow  dust  to  escape, 
are  actually  utilized  as  air  inlets,  and  incidentally  this  sets  up 
ventilation  in  the  mill  room,  improving  the  working  conditions 
of  operators. 

An  illustration  of  the  Sturtevant  "Steel  Plate"  Dust- 
collecting  Fan  appears  on  opposite  page.  It  has  been  designed 
especially  for  the  .class  of  work  referred  to  and  is  supplied  in 
eighteen  sizes,  each  being  made  to  discharge  the  air  horizontally 
or  vertically  in  either  direction,  as  may  be  desired,  and  in  addition, 
with  the  driving  pulley,  either  on  the  right  or  left  hand.  Hence, 
a  suitable  fan  can  be  selected  to  fit  any  particular  set  of  conditions. 

Two  different  types  of  collectors  are  shown  on  subsequent 
pages.  The  first  is  known  as  the  Sturtevant  Patent  Air  Filter 
and  the  second  as  the  Sturtevant  Patent  Dust  Collector. 

The  Air  Filter  is  exceptionally  efficient  and  simple  in 
operation.  There  are  very  few  moving  parts,  and  when  running 
the  mechanism  requires  practically  no  attention.  It  is  constructed 
on  an  expanding  unit  principle,  compensating  for  extensions  to 
plant. 

The  Dust  Collector  is  of  the  "  Cyclone  "  type,  and  is  generally 
used  where  the  dust  made  is  comparatively  heavy. 

These  Dust  Collectors  are  made  in  many  different  sizes  to 
suit  the  volumes  of  air  handled  by  the  Dust-Collecting  System, 
of  which  they  form  a  part. 

The  particular  advantage  of  this  patented  device  over  the  ordinary  type  is 
that  owing  to  its  peculiar  internal  construction  the  "back  pressure", 
against  which  the  fan  has  to  deliver  the  dust-laden  air,  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  thus  affecting  an  important  saving  in  the  power  absorbed  by  the 
Dust-Collecting  System. 


PLATE  XXXV. 


STEEL   PLATE"    DUST-COLLECTING   FAN. 


[To  face  page  50. 


X 
X 

H 

£ 


CHAPTER  VII 
POWER    PLANTS 

THE  process  of  manufacture  in  a  modern  cement  factory  is 
such  as  to  demand  a  continuous  supply  of  power  at  all  times. 

In  the  older  established  factories  day  and  night  operation 
was  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception,  these  works  closing  down 
only  at  week-ends,  and  whilst  it  was  not  desirable  to  close  down 
oftener  than  possible,  the  effect  of  a  stoppage  of  any  portion  of  the 
works  was  not  so  serious  as  on  a  modern  plant  equipped  with 
rotary  kilns,  it  being  essential,  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  result* 
in  production  and  economy,  that  this  type  of  kiln,  together  with 
its  auxiliary  machinery,  should  run  day  and  night  for  long  periods 
without  any  stop,  except  those  of  a  few  moments  duration  occa- 
sionally required  to  correct  the  burning  of  the  clinker,  or  to  patch 
a  weak  spot  in  the  lining  ;  and  provided  the  constructional  details 
of  the  kiln  are  correct,  the  length  of  time  that  a  rotary  kiln  can 
run  without  a  stop  is  governed  by  the  length  of  life  of  the  fire- 
brick lining,  and  instances  of  26  weeks  and  32  weeks  on  kiln>3 
180  feet  and  200  feet  long  are  met  with  in  practice. 

The  selection  of  the  power  plant  is  therefore  a  matter  which 
must  receive  the  most  careful  consideration,  and  it  may  be  taken 
as  an  axiom  that  the  success  of  the  concern  will  be  dependent  in 
a  large  measure  upon  the  judgment  used  when  deciding  this 
important  part  of  the  works. 

From  the  foregoing  remarks  it  will  be  realized  that  the 
outstanding  features  must  be — 

(1)  Capacity  for  continuous  running  for  long  periods. 

(2)  Economy. 

The  .type  of  motive-power  adopted  will  also  depend  upon  a 
number  of  other  considerations,  amongst  which  may  be 
mentioned — 

(3)  The  size  and  output  of  the  works. 

(4)  The  type  of  transmission,  whether  electrical  or  through 

shafting,  etc. 

(5)  Quantity  and  quality  of  water  supply. 

(6)  Ability  to   carry    overload    and    take    care   of  large 

fluctuations  of  load. 

(7)  First  cost. 

A  large  amount  of  experience  must  be  brought  to  bear  in  the 
final  selection  of  the  prime  mover  ;  the  problem  must  also  be 


52  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

approached  from  an  engineering  as  well  as  manufacturing  point 
of  view,  and  if  those  in  authority  do  not  possess  this  knowledge, 
then  it  were  wise  to  obtain  the  services  of  an  engineer 
experienced  in  this  branch  of  industry,  as  the  type  selected  will 
determine  the  whole  design  of  the  power  plant,  and  when  once 
installed  it  must  be  there  to  give  years  of  unfailing  service,  at  the 
same  time  maintaining  its  initial  efficiency. 

As  in  other  industries  where  a  fairly  large  amount  of  power  is 
required,  the  choice  is  practically  limited  to  one  of  the  following, 
each  of  which  is  represented  by  many  various  designs  : — 

(1)  Electrical  power  purchased  from   supply  station. 

(2)  Gas-engines  with  gas-producing  plants. 

(3)  Reciprocating  steam-engines. 

(4)  Steam  turbines. 

All  the  foregoing  types  are  to  be  found  in  the  cement  industry, 
and  as  far  as  British  works  are  concerned  the  reciprocating  steam- 
engine  at  present  occupies  the  premier  position,  due  in  a  great 
measure  to  its  simplicity  and  reliability,  coupled  with  the  fact 
that  it  was  first  in  the  field.  Gas-engines  also  occupy  a  fairly 
prominent  position ;  they  are  rarely  found  in  sizes  over 
400  b.h.p.,  and  where  employed  have  proved  economical  and 
reliable  ;  they  do  not  possess  the  same  capacity  as  a  steam-engine 
for  carrying  overload,  but  in  cases  where  water  supply  is  limited, 
or  where  fuel  is  costly,  they  would  have  a  very  big  argument  in 
their  favour. 

Steam  turbines,  though  well  established  in  other  industries, 
and  particularly  electric  lighting  stations,  are  comparatively  new- 
comers on  cement  works,  and  in  the  few  instances  where  they  have 
been  installed  they  are  entirely  successful. 

After  deciding  upon  the  site  for  the  works  it  will  be  necessary 
to  carefully  consider  the  class  of  raw  material  from  which  the 
cement  is  to  be  made,  as  this  item  has  an  important  bearing  on 
the  amount  of  power  required  in  the  initial  stages  of  manufacture, 
which  may  be  considered  as  being  up  to  and  including  the  actual 
production  of  the  slurry. 

In  order  to  illustrate  this  point  it  may  be  stated  that  where 
raw  materials  of  a  soft  nature,  such  as  chalk  and  clay,  are  used, 
as  found  in  the  southern  portions  of  England,  the  machinery 
employed  to  produce  an  intimate  mixture  of  these  materials  and 
the  resultant  slurry  almost  invariably  consists  of  a  series  of  wash- 
mills,  usually  four  in  number,  about  16  feet  internal  diameter, 
driven  by  a  common  shaft  placed  above  and  running  along  the 
longitudinal  centre  line  of  the  mills. 

Such  an  arrangement  does  not  require  more  than  120  b.h.p. 
to  drive  it  when  starting  up  in  a  clean  condition,  and  after 
running  for  such  a  length  of  time  that  it  becomes  necessary  to 
close  down  in  order  to  clean  out  the  loose  flints  and  pebbles, 


POWER    PLANTS  53 

it  would  be  found  that  the  power  taken  at  the  finish  was  about 
330  b.h.p,.  ;  the  average  power  throughout  such  a  run  would  be 
'250  b.h.p.  These  figures  relate  to  mills  of  large  output  under 
the  best  conditions  as  regards  regularity  of  feed,  working  day 
and  night  with  usual  stoppages  for  meal-times,  and  the  amount  of 
raw  material  dealt  with  by  a  set  of  mills  requiring  this  amount 
of  power  would  be  in  the  neighbourhood  of  60  tons  of  chalk, 
together  with  the  necessary  amount  of  clay,  and  would  produce 
sufficient  slurry  to  manufacture,  say,  36  tons  of  Portland  Cement 
with  an  average  expenditure  of  7  b.h.pi.  hours  per  ton  of  cement. 

On  the  other  hand,  where  the  raw  material  consists  of  a  hard 
substance,  such  as  limestone  rock,  the  methods  and  machinery 
employed  are  somewhat  different ;  it  becomes  necessary  in  the 
first  place  to  install  crushing  machinery  capable  of  dealing  with 
the  largest  block  that  .would  be  quarried  and  reducing  it  down  to 
anything  between  2J  in.  and  1  in.  cube  preparatory  to  feeding  in 
into  the  grinding  machinery  for  the  production  of  slurry. 

The  smaller  the  material  is  .crushed  the  better,  within  reason, 
as  the  expenditure  of  power  for  crushing  is  small  in  comparison 
with  that  required  for  the  same  reduction  when  carried  out  in  the 
grinding  mills,  and  incidentally  the  smaller  the  material  the  easier 
it  is  to  handle,  producing  less  wear  and  tear  on  the  machinery 
feeding  it  into  the  mills. 

It  requires  approximately  T6  tons  of  limestone  to  produce 
one  ton  of  cement,  and  in  order  to  make  a  comparison  with  the 
previous  figures  given  for  the  "Washmill"  process  it  will  be 
seen  that  to  produce  the  same  quantity  of  cement,  viz.*  36  tons, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  crush 

36  X  1-6  =  57-6  tons  per  hour. 

It  is  found  in  practice  to  require  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
2  b.h.p.  to  crush  one  ton  of  medium  hard  rock  per  hour  down  to 
1  in.  cube,  and  consequently  the  crushing  of  57'6  tons  will  require 

57-6  X  2-0  =  115-2  b.h.p.  per  hour. 

In  addition,  power  will  also  be  required  for  conveying 
machinery  and  screening  plant,  which  would  'bring  up  the  power 
for  the  crushing  plant  alone  to  at  least  150  b.h.p. 

To  convert  the  above  amount  of  raw  material  (57*6  tons)  into 
slurry  it  will  be  necessary  to  pass  it  through  grinding  machinery, 
the  usual  type  employed  for  this  class  of  material  being  a  steel 
ball  mill  in  combination  with  a  tube  mill;  the  output  of  the  latter 
in  this  instance  would  be  from  9  to  10  tons  per  hour,  and  the 
number  of  mills  required  would  consequently  be 

57-6-^-10,  say  6. 

It  is  found  in  practice  that  one  steel  ball  mill  and  one  tube 
mill  of  the  abo,ve  capacity  when  grinding  limestone  rock  to  slurry, 


54  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

having  a  fineness  of  8  per  cent  residue  on  180  by  180  mesh 
requires  325  b.h.p.,  and  on  this  basis  the  power  required  for 
six  mills  will  be 

6  X  325  =  1,950  b.h.p. 

To  this  must  be  added  150  b.h.p.  previously  found  for  the 
crushing  plant,  thus  bringing  up  the  total  power  required  for  the 
wet  grinding  portion  of  the  plant  to  2,100  b.h.p.,  as  against 
,  330  b.h.p.  for  a  plant  operating  on  chalk  and  having  an  equal 
output.  Beyond  this  point  the  power  required  for  the  remaining 
stages  of  manufacture  will  be  the  same  on  either  works,  and  it  may 
be  stated  generally  that  where  raw  material  of  a  hard  nature  is 
used  the  power  required  to  reduce  this  material  into  slurry  is 
equal  to  the  amount  of  power  required  for  converting  the  slurry 
into  the  finished  product. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  class  of  raw  materials  used  has 
a  very  important  influence  on  the  size  of  power  plant  required. 

Having  decided  upon  the  process  of  manufacture,  the  type  of 
machinery  to  be  adopted,  and  the  output  of  the  works,  it  will  be 
an  easy  matter  to  determine  the  total  amount  of  power  required 
and  the  size  of  prime  mover  to  install,  the  makers  of  the  various 
machines  generally  stating  the  amount  of  power  required  when 
operating  under  given  conditions. 

Where  a  large  amount  of  power  is  to  be  used  it  will  be 
advantageous  to  divide  this  up  into  a  number  of  units,  keeping 
these  as  large  as  possible  on  account  of  economical  running,  the 
reason  for  subdividing  the  plant  being  :  — 

(1)  To  avoid  total  shut-down  in  case  of  accidents. 

(2)  To    facilitate    overhaul   and   repairs   which   are    always 

necessary  and  could  not  be  carried  out  without  stopping 
the  works  if  only  one  prime  mover  were  installed. 

(3)  To  allow  certain  portions  of  the  works  (e.g.  raw  grinding 

and  cement  grinding)  to  be  shut  down  at  week-ends  and 
avoid  using  large  units  for  producing  only  a  small 
amount  of  power. 

Owing  to  the  severe  nature  and  fluctuations  of  load  met  with 
in  this  industry  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  whatever  type  of 
power  is  employed,  and  especially  where  reciprocating  engines 
are  used,  they  must  be  constructed  for  continuous  running,  i.e.  168 
hours  per  week,  and  capable  of  carrying  at  least  25  per  cent 
overload  just  as  easily  as  full  load. 

Too  much  attention  cannot  be  paid  to  details,  and  it  will  be 
the  duty  of  those  responsible  for  the  lay-out  of  the  power  plant 
to  satisfy  themselves  that  all  parts,  and  especially  wearing  parts, 
are  of  ample  dimensions  for  the  work  demanded  of  them.  It  does 
not  follow  that  because  an  engine  gives  good  service  on  a  compara- 
tively steady  load  like  that  found  in  the  cotton  industry,  and 


POWER    PLANTS  55 

where  only  ten  hours  service  are  required  daily  with  two  stoppages 
in  between,  that  the  same  engine  will  give  as  good  running  results 
on  a  cement  works,  and  as  a  consequence  they  must  be  liberally 
designed  ;  for  instance,  where  a  maker  is  of  opinion  that  a 
10  in.  by  20  in.  mainshaft  bearing  is  ample,  it  may  upon  further 
consideration  be  wiser  to  increase  these  sizes  to  11  in.  by  22  in. 

The  foregoing  statement  is  not  intended  to  be  looked  upon 
as  advocating  alterations  simply  for  the  sake  of  making  them, 
but  where  an  improvement  can  be  made,  and  the  purchaser's 
engineer  knows  by  actual  experience  the  places  which  are  likely 
to  give  trouble,  it  is  his  duty  to  place  that  experience  at  the 
disposal  of  the  maker  in  order  to  obtain  a  result  which  will 
give  satisfaction  to  all  parties  concerned,  and  the  comparatively 
slight  extra  cost  in  the  beginning  will  be  more  than  amply  repaid 
when  set  off  against  the  loss  of  output  alone,  due  to  a  few  hours 
stoppage  of  the  plant. 

TYPES  OF  TRANSMISSION 

The  machinery  in  this  industry  lends  itself  to  two  types  of 
transmission  on  account  of  a  division  line  separating  the  process 
of  manufacture  into  two  distinct  parts,  viz.:  — 

(1)  The  raw  grinding  mill. 

(2)  The  clinker  grinding  mill. 

The  first  method  of  driving  would  be  to  install  one  or  more 
engines  according  to  the  number  of  units  to  be  driven  in  each  of 
the  above  departments,  and  transmit  power  from  the  engine  by 
means  of  ropes  running  in  a  rope  race  built  alongside  the  mill, 
each  engine  driving  its  own  set  of  mills  ;  this  would  necessitate 
two  complete  power-houses,  and  on  a  modern  works  such  an 
arrangement  would  render  it  necessary  to  install  an  electrical  plant, 
also  to  drive  some  of  the  auxiliary  machinery,  which  from  the 
nature  of  its  position  with  regard  to  the  main  units  could  not 
otherwise  be  driven  in  a  satisfactory  and  economical  manner  ;  it 
is  highly  desirable  to  eliminate  wherever  possible  all  shafting 
and  gearing,  which  is  always  a  source  of  trouble  owing  to  the 
dusty  conditions  under  which  it  will  have  to  work. 

The  second  method  of  driving  would  be  to  construct  an  electric 
generating  station  of  sufficient  capacity  to  drive  the  whole  works 
electrically,  and  install  either  gas-  or  steam-engines  or  steam 
turbines  in  the  most  suitable  sized  units. 

The  latter  proposition  offers  the  best  all-round  arrangement, 
even  on  works  where  so  small  an  amount  of  power  as  500  i.h.p. 
is  required. 

In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  methods  of  driving  to  be 
met  with  in  practice  nine  instances  are  quoted  in  the  table 
(p.  56). 


56 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


Type  of  Engine. 

Number 
of 
Engines. 

Description  of  Drive. 

Machinery  driven. 

Horizontal  steam  turbine 

1 

Electrical. 

For  all  machinery. 

)  )                              )5                     5  » 

2 

M 

5) 

,  ,         slow-speed  steam 

f    1 

Kopes. 

For  wet-grinding 

machinery. 

)  )                 j  >             »  > 

1 

,, 

For  cement-grinding 

1 

machinery. 

Producer  gas-engines  . 

3 

Electrical  direct  coupled. 

Kilns  and  auxiliary 

^ 

machinery. 

Producer  gas-engine    . 

(    1 

Direct  coupled  to  mill. 

Wet-grinding 

1 

machinery. 

Vertical  slow-speed  steam    . 

1     1 

>  5                      55                          5  > 

Cement-grinding 

I 

machinery. 

High-speed  vertical  steam  . 

2 

Electrical  direct  coupled. 

Electrical  for  all 

machines. 

Horizontal  slow-speed  steam 

'     1 

Kopes. 

Wet-grinding  and 

cement-grinding. 

High-speed  steam 

1 

j( 

Cement-grinding. 

»  >             » 

2 

Electrical  direct  coupled. 

Kilns,  auxiliary 

machinery,  and 

lighting. 

Horizontal  slow-speed  steam 

1 

Ropes. 

Cement-grinding. 

Vertical           ,  ,                ,  , 

-     1 

Hopes  and  electrical. 

Cement-grinding  and 

wet-prinding. 

,,                ,,                ,, 

(     1 

Direct  coupled  to  mill. 

Wet-grinding. 

Horizontal      ,,                ,, 

4 

,,             ,,           mills. 

Cement-grinding. 

Vertical  high-speed         ,, 
Horizontal  steam  turbine     . 

1; 

Electrical  direct  coupled. 

j'  Kilns,  auxiliary 
-      machinery,  and 

i  .      i     ,  . 

V 

"           "            " 

\     lighting. 

,,         slow-speed  steam 

/  2 

1 

Ropes  electrical. 
Electrical  direct  coupled. 

j'  Kilns,  auxiliary 
•j      machinery,  and 
I     lighting. 

».            •»                » 

1 

Ropes. 

Cement-grinding 

machinery. 

Producer  gas-engines  . 

4 

Direct  coupled  to  mills. 

Wet-grinding 

machinery. 

'  >              »  >                >  > 

4 

,  ,              >  j             1  1 

Cement-grinding 

\ 

machinery. 

Engines  bracketed  together  formed  one  works. 

The  sizes  of  the  engines  in  the  table  varied  up  to  a 
maximum  of  : — 

Steam  turbines       .         .         .     •    .  •      1,500  kw. 
Slow-speed  steam-engines      .         .         1,000  i.h.p. 
High-speed  vertical  engines    .         .  250  kw. 

Gas-engines  ....  400  b.h.p. 

WATER  SUPPLY 

The  locality  of  the  works  will  be  decided  by  the  raw  material, 
and  as  this  usually  covers  a  large  area,  the  actual  position  of  the 
works  will  be  decided  in  a  large  measure  by  the  water  supply  ; 


POWER     PLANTS 


57 


the  more  abundant  this  is  the  better,  as  the  choice  of  motive-power 
is  not  then  restricted  ;  care  must  be  taken  that  the  supply  will  not 
fail  during  any  part  of  the  year,  or  that  any  portion  of  the  works 
will  be  affected  by  floods,  and  the  question  of  water  rights  must 
be  carefully  considered. 

Too  much  attention  cannot  be  given  to  the  matter  both  as 
regards  quantity  and  quality. 

For  general  use  the  quality  is  not  so  important,  but  for  steam- 
raising  purposes  this  item  is  of  vital  importance,  and  a  thorough, 
chemical  investigation  must  be  made  in  order  to  ascertain  what 
impurities  are  present,  with  a  view  to  installing  proper  treatment 
so  as  to  ensure  suitable  feed- water  for  the  boilers.  There  are  very 
few  instances  where  it  will  not  pay  to  adopt  a  suitable  plant 
even  in  cases  where  the  water  is  considered  good. 

The  mere  fact  that  the  finished  product  of  the  works  is  cement 
is  in  itself  a  good  index  to  the  character  of  the  water  supply,  on 
account  of  the  geological  formation  of  the  land  upon  which  it  is 
situated,  and  the  presence  of  scale-forming  impurities  may  be 
looked  for  in  considerable  quantities  ;  in  addition,  the  proximity 
of  other  factories,  especially  chemical,  dye,  and  paper  works, 
must  be  noted,  as  they  often  contaminate  and  make  water  unfit 
for  use,  generally  due  to  corrosion  of  boiler  plates  and  fittings, 
and  the  author  has  met  with  instances  where  air  pumps  and 
condensers  have  been  utterly  ruined  by  the  presence  of  such 
pollution  in  river  water. 

Assuming  the  water  to  be  hard,  but  otherwise  good,  it  will 
simply  be  a  matter  of  adopting  treatment  for  the  reduction  of 
scale-forming  materials,  these  generally  being: — 


Substance. 

Chemical  Symbol. 

Common  Name. 

Sulphate  of  lime   . 
Carbonate  of  lime  . 
Carbonate  of  magnesia 
Sulphate  of  magnesia 
Silica    . 
Carbonate  of  iron  . 
Alumina 

CaSO4 
CaCO3 
MgCOs 
MgSC-4 
SiO2 
FeC03 
A1203 

Plaster  of  Paris  —  gypsum 
Chalk  —  marble. 

Epsom  salts. 
Sand. 

Other  impurities  will  be  found  present,  but  their  effect  is  of 
a  different  nature,  in  some  cases  assisting  deposition  of  scale, 
whilst  in  others,  due  to  the  action  which  goes  on  in  the  boilers  at 
high  temperatures  and  pressures,  forming  substances  which  cause 
pitting  and  corrosion  ;  for  instance,  magnesium  chloride  may 
produce  hydrochloric  acid,  which  is  not  very  desirable  inside  a 
boiler. 

The  substances  which  may  be  classed  as  non-scaling  impurities 
and  usually  found  in  few  waters  are  : — 


58 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


Substance. 

Chemical  Symbol. 

Common  Name. 

Sodium  chloride    . 
,,       carbonate 
,,       sulphate  . 
Calcium  chloride  . 
Magnesium  chloride 

NaCl 

Na2C03 
Na2  S04 
CaCl2 
MgCl, 

Common  salt. 
Soda  ash. 
Glaubers  salts. 

The  scale-  produced  varies  according-  to  the  class  of  water 
and  may  be  of  the  following  characteristics  : — • 

(1)  Soft  scale. 

(2)  Hard  scale. 

(3)  Sludgy  sediment. 

Each  of  the  above  has  its  own  particular  effect  on  a  boiler,  and 
it  must  not  be  considered  that,  because  a  certain  water  will  not 
cause  a  hard  incrustation  which  can  only  be  removed  by  resorting 
to  mechanical  means  or  chipping-,  that  it  is  safe  to  use  without 
treatment,  as  it  may  in  practice,  generally  due  to  the  non-scaling 
impurities,  cause  serious  trouble  by  pitting  and  corrosion,  or 
priming  together  with  oozing  out  at  joints  and  fittings,  the  last 
two  characteristics  being  especially  noted  where  sodium  chloride, 
or  salt,  is  present,  as  in  sea- water. 

Each  class  of  water  must  receive  its  own  chemical  treatment 
in  order  to  rid  it  of  its  injurious  properties  ;  the  treatment  is  not 
difficult  nowadays  and  will  vary  little  in  the  majority  of  cases. 
The  object  must  be  to  use  a  boiler  for  steam-raising  purposes, 
and  not  a  dumping-ground  for  all  manner  of  impurities,  chemical 
and  otherwise,  which  come  along  with  the  f  eed-water,  and  to  attain 
this  end  the  most  satisfactory  way  is  to  deposit  these  impurities 
outside  and  previous  Jo  entering  the  boilers,  where  the  cost  of 
dealing  with  them  is  a  comparatively  small  item  and  a  matter 
easily  performed.  It  requires  very  little  inquiry  into  the  wages 
list  to  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the  removal  of  scale  from  insido 
a  boiler,  and  especially  a  water-tube  boiler,  is  a  troublesome 
matter  entailing  a  large  amount  of  time  and  expense  ;  even  in. 
the  case  of  the  easily  accessible  Lancashire  boiler,  where  fed  with 
reasonably  pure  water,  it  is  found  to  occupy  practically  all  the 
time  of  one  man  to  attend  to  the  scaling  of  a  battery  of  six  or 
eight  boilers,  and  to  this  must  be  added  loss  of  economy  due  to 
the  presence  of  scale,  together  with  depreciation  of  the  boiler, 
which  must  take  place  where  scale  exists,  due  to  the  overheating 
of  the  plates,  slight  perhaps  where  a  small  amount  of  scale  is 
present,  but  increasing  out  of  all  proportion  as  the  thickness  of 
scale  increases. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  scale  will  determine  its  heat- 
resisting  properties,  and  it  is  generally  recognized  that  on  the 


POWER    PLANTS  59 

average  a  thickness  of  J  in.  offers  a  resistance  to  the  passage 
of  heat  equal  to  that  of  1  inch  of  asbestos. 

If  investigation  proves  the  water  after  treatment  to  be  quite 
adapted  for  boiler-feed  purposes,  then  the  type  of  softener  selected 
should  be  of  ample  capacity,  and  it  will  always  be  found 
advantageous  to  pass  the  water  from  the  softening  plant  into 
settling  tanks  and  even  an  additional  filter  to  ensure  freedom  of 
the  water  from  precipitated  salts  formed  in  the  softening  plant. 

Present-day  water-tube  boilers  and  high-speed  engines 
demand  water  of  the  highest  degree  of  purity  obtainable,  and  even 
where  gas-engines  of  large  size  are  installed  considerable  benefit 
will  be  found  by  preventing  scale  forming  in  the  water-jackets 
which  in  the  majority  of  engines  are  practically  inaccessible  for 
cleaning  purposes. 

TYPE  OF  POWER  PLANT 

Few  cement  works  will  be  situated  so  as  to  avail  themselves  of 
the  purchase  of  electrical  power  in  bulk,  unless  this  is  conveyed 
long  distances  ;  the  addition  of  a  continuous  day  and  night  load 
of  l,000kw.  or  more  would  not  assist  a  supply  station  to  straighten 
out  its  peak  loads  ;  consequently,  a  comparatively  small  power 
station  will  not  be  able  to  cope  with  this  additional  load  without 
endangering  its  capacity  to  deal  with  its  own  demands  and  would 
in  all  probability  necessitate  the  laying  down  of  new  plant. 

The  cost  per  unit  at  which  the  required  power  could  be 
purchased  will  be  greater  than  that  at  which  it  could  be  produced 
on  the  works  itself,  unless  there  is  some  serious  obstacle  such  as 
scarcity  of  water  supply  or  difficulty  of  obtaining  fuel  ;  these 
conditions  will  very  rarely  happen,  and  as  modern  power  plants 
of  even  small  size  are  now  designed  to  give  the  greatest  economy, 
the  most  satisfactory  course  will  be  for  a  works  to  lay  down  a 
plant  adapted  to  its  own  particular  needs,  and  thus  be  independent 
of  outside  sources,  together  with  the  moral  and  legal  complications 
which  may  arise.  Being  a  commercial  enterprise  it  will  be 
necessary  to  install  a  plant  having  as  its  outstanding  features 
reliability  and  economy. 

The  various  types  of  power  which  may  be  adopted  were  men- 
tioned previously,  and  on  looking  at  the  problem  in  the  broadest 
possible  manner,  without  prejudice  to  any  particular  type,  it  may 
be  said  that  a  Steam  Power  Plant  will  meet  the  peculiar  needs  of 
a  cement  factory  rrrore  readily  than  any  other,  and  when  laid 
down  as  a  Central  Power  Station  permits  the  most  economical 
generation  of  power  coupled  with  the  most  ideal  general  arrange- 
ment of  the  works. 

Assuming  it  is  decided  to  use  steam,  the  choice  will  lie  between 

(1)  Reciprocating  steam-anglne?. 

(2)  Steam  turbines. 


60  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  power  must  be  available  at  all 
times.  On  a  plant  with  only  one  rotary  kiln  installed  the  demand 
for  power  will,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  be  governed  by  the 
successful  running  of  the  kiln,  and  should  it  become  necessary  to 
shut  down  this  unit  for  any  length  of  time  the  demand  for  power 
will  automatically  cease,  though  of  course  it  will  be  understood 
that  in  the  event  of  such  an  occurrence  opportunity  may  be  taken 
to  fill  up  the  slurry  mixers  if  the  level  of  these  happens  to  be 
low,  or  to  grind  up  any  accumulated  stock  of  clinker,  the  former 
taking  not  more  than  two  or  three  days  and  the  latter,  say,  a  week's 
running. 

"With  modern  rotary  kilns  of  180  to  200  feet  long,  construc- 
tional details  offer  no  difficulties  to  continuous  running  ;  it  will, 
however,  be  necessary  to  make  a  stop  of  seven  to  fourteen  days 
in  order  to  reline  the  burning  zone,  say  once  every  six  or  nine 
months,  and  it  will  therefore  be  seen  that  this  point  bears  some 
influence  on  the  subdivision  of  the  generating  units,  introducing 
as  it  does  on  a  plant  having  only  a  single  kiln  periods  when  small 
amounts  of  power  are  required. 

It  may  be  stated  that  a  single  kiln  plant  is  not  the  most 
economical  size  to  run,  but  as  the  power  required  will  give  the 
smallest  amount  necessary  for  a  modern  works  it  will  probably  be 
as  well  to  consider  whether  a  subdivision  of  the  power  units  in 
so  small  a  plant  will  be  advantageous.  The  following  figures  give 
very  closely  the  total  amount  of  power  required  on  single  kiln 
plants  having  an  output  of  about  1,000  tons  per  week  : — 


Raw  Materials. 

Power  required. 

I.H.P.          KW. 

Chalk  and  clay, 
Limestone  rock, 

or  similar  soft  materials  .... 
or  similar  hard  and  crystalline  materials  . 

800           500 
1,360          850 

As  the  works  must  for  economical  reasons  be  designed  so  as 
to  produce  all  slurry  and  grind  all  clinker  when  working  twenty - 
four  hours  each  day  during  the  week  up  to  midday  on  Saturday, 
it  will  be  realized  that  the  load  between  this  time  and  6  a.m.  on 
Monday  is  comparatively  light,  consisting  only  of  the  following:  — 

Power-house  auxiliaries, 

Slurry  mixer, 

Slurry  pump, 

Rotary  kiln  and  auxiliary  machinery, 

Workshop, 

Lighting, 

absorbing  at  the  most  125  kw.,  and  as  this  power  will  only  be 
required   each   week-end  it   is   apparent  that  even   on   a    plant 


POWER    PLANTS 


61 


requiring  500  kw.  as  a  maximum  it  will  be  advisable  to  install 
two  units  of  250  kw.  each,  since  only  one  of  these  may  be 
carrying  half  load  for  a  continuous  period  of  forty-two  hours  each, 
week-end,  and  even  though  the  larger  unit  would  show  a  slightly 
more  economical  steam  consumption  the  subdivision  is  advisable 
as  a  safeguard  against  total  shut-down  and  also  to  assist  carrying 
out  maintenance  and  repairs  which  would  otherwise  be  difficult. 
In  order  to  note  what  the  effect  will  be  as  regards  steam  and  coal 
consumption  by  the  subdivision  of  a  unit  of  the  size  in  question 
it  will  be  as  well  to  make  a  comparison  of  the  different-sized 
engines  proposed  ;  assuming  that  reciprocating  steam-engines 
are  adopted,  as  would  generally  be  the  case  where  less  than 
500  kw.  is  required.  The  following  table  gives  the  steam  con- 
sumption which  may  be  expected  under  ordinary  running 
conditions  from  well-designed  slow  revolution  engines,  and  on  this 
basis  the  figures  will  be  calculated  :  — 


Size  of 
Engine. 

Load 
I.H.P. 

Boiler 
Pressure. 

Superheat 
Temperature 
Fahr. 

Vacuum 
L.P.  Exhaust. 

Steam  Consumption 
per  I.H.P.  Hour. 

500  kw. 

f   800 
X  200 

160 
160 

150° 
150° 

26" 
26i" 

11-5'lb. 
13-5lb. 

250  kw. 

r  400 
X  200 

160 
160 

150° 
150° 

26" 

26£" 

12-5  lb. 
13-5  lb. 

800  I.H.P.  Engine. 
126  hours  X  800  i.h.p.XlTS  lb. 


42 
168  hours. 


X200 


X18'5  lb. 


.     1,159,200 
113,400    , 

=  1,272,600  lb.  steam, 


400  I.H.P.  Engine. 
126  hours  X  400  i.h.p.X12'5  lb.X2  engines 


42 


X200 


X13*5  Ib.Xl  engine 


168  hours. 


1,260,000 
113,400 

=  1,373,400  lb.  steam. 


Or  a  difference  of  1,373,400  -  1,272,600  =  100,800  lb.  steam 
per  week. 

Which,  on  the  basis  of  an  evaporation  of  8  lb.  water  per  lb.  coal, 
shows  a  saving  of  5'6  tons  of  coal  per  week  in  favour  of  the  large- 
sized  unit. 

In  the  event  of  there  being  no  intention  to  increase  the  capacity 
of  the  works  beyond  the  output  of  one  kiln,  the  course  to  adopt 
would  be  the  installation  of  the  two  smaller-sized  power  units, 
but  in  the  event  of  the  works  being  laid  down  with  the  idea  of 
extending,  it  will  be  advisable  to  consider  what  the  maximum 


62  THE    PORTLAND    CEMEST    IXDUSTEY 

amount  of  power  required  will  be,  and  if  possible  arrange  the 
first  power  unit  so  as  to  be  similar  in  size  to  the  others  fin  ill  v 
installed. 

This  will  probably  give  a  larger  size  than  would  otherwise  be 
installed,  and  unless  it  is  intended  to  carry  out  extensions  very 
soon  after  starting  up  the  works,  the  advisability  of  providing 
a  small  power  unit  capable  of  economically  carrying  the  week-end 
load  and  acting  as  a  standby  should  be  considered. 

Such  a  unit,  if  arranged  for  in  the  early  days  of  construction, 
would  practically  pay  for  its  cost  before  manufacture  was  com- 
menced by  providing  light  and  power,  thereby  saving  much 
valuable  time  in  the  completion  of  the  works,  and  would  be  of  great 
value  as  the  time  of  starting  up  approached,  when  perhaps  for 
many  weeks  there  may  be  one  machine  here  and  another  there  to 
be  tried  round,  and  yet  not  sufficient  power  required  to  warrant 
running  a  large-sized  unit. 

CHOICE  OF  POWER  UXITS 

The  type  adopted  depends  upon  the  method  of  transmitting  the 
power  to  the  various  mills  and  was  mentioned  previously  ;  it  will 
not  be  out  of  place,  however,  to  enumerate  the  various  arrange- 
ments which  may  be  found  in  practice  : — 

(1)  Engine  so  situated  that  the  crankshaft  may  be  extended  to 

run  the  full  length  of  the  mills  and  drive  each  mill  by 
means  of  ropes  or  belts  through  friction  clutches. 

(2)  Engine  driving  direct  by  means  of  ropes  or  belt  on  to  a 

second  motion  shaft  and  thence  to  each  mill  by  means  of 
ropes  or  belts  through  friction  clutches. 

(3)  Engine  driving  generator  through  ropes  or  belt  and  mills 

electrically  driven. 

(4)  Engine  direct  coupled  to  generator  and  mills  electrically 

driven. 

In  the  first  three  instances  reciprocating  engines  would, 
for  practical  reasons,  be  installed  ;  in  the  last  instance  either 
reciprocating  engines  or  steam  turbines  could  be  adopted. 

On  point  of  economy  there  is  not  much  to  choose  between 
either  type  up  to  500  kw.,  but  beyond  this  the  argument  is  all  in 
favour  of  the  turbine  on  the  point  of  lower  steam  consumption, 
smaller  cost  of  foundations,  steadiness  of  running,  reduced  oil 
bills,  and  the  fact  that  no  oil  is  contained  in  the  condensed  steam, 
thus  enabling  the  condensate  to  be  used  for  boiler  feed  and 
requiring  only  a  small  amount  of  make-up  water. 

The  economical  steam  consumption  of  a  turbine  is  chiefly  due 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  suitable  for  operating  with  highly  super- 
heated steam,  and  can  deal  with  the  enormous  volume  which  a 
given  quantity  of  steam  will  occupy  when  expanded  down  to  low 


POWER     PLANTS  63 

pressures,  thus  enabling  the  turbine  to  make  use  of  high  vacuum 
and  extract  as  much  energy  as  possible  out  of  the  steam  ; 
consequently,  in  order  to  ensure  sustained  economy,  it  is  necessary 
to  run  with  as  high  and  as  steady  superheat  as  possible,  and 
maintain  the  condensing  apparatus  in  the  best  possible  condition, 
keeping  a  watchful  eye  for  any  possible  air  or  other  leakages 
which  would  vitiate  the  vacuum. 

The  reciprocating  engine,  on  the  other  hand,  cannot  avail  itself 
of  the  same  high  degree  of  vacuum  as  a  turbine,  and  on  account 
of  constructional  difficulties  it  would  be  impracticable  to  make 
an  engine  having  the  enormous  size  of  L.P.  cylinder  and  large- 
sized  valves,  steam  passages,  etc.,  required. 

On  the  point  of  superheat  also  this  type  of  engine  demands  the 
greatest  amount  of  skill  and  experience  to  be  placed  behind  its 
design  if  it  be  desired  to  make  use  of  steam  superheated,  say 
150°  F.  The  oils  used  must  be  of  the  highest  class,  free  from 
any  tendency  to  carbonize,  otherwise  serious  trouble  will  arise 
and  steam  consumption  go  up  due  to  piston  and  valve  packing 
rings  sticking  in  their  grooves,  with  all  the  attendant  troubles 
such  as  scoring  cylinders,  etc. 

In  any  case,  whether  steam  at  saturation  temperature  or  super- 
heated steam  is  employed,  too  much  attention  cannot  be  paid  to  the 
above  details  by  both  the  purchasers  and  makers  of  an  engine, 
as  these  points  are  almost  vital  to  successful  economy  where  a 
steam-engine  is  concerned. 

The  design  and  manufacture  of  both  the  preceding  types  of 
prime  mover  are  now  based  on  well-tried  lines,  each  maker 
possessing  their  own  standard  designs  embodying  ideas  and 
experience,  often  gained  at  considerable  expense  ;  as  far  as  the 
turbine  is  concerned  very  little  improvement  can  be  made  to  those 
now  on  the  market,  and  these  are  usually  well  equipped  with 
accessories  and  fittings.  The  mere  fact  that  these  machines  run 
at  high  speeds  must  have  very  fine  clearances  and  condensing 
apparatus  capable  of  producing  the  best  possible  vacuum,  leaves 
no  option  for  the  maker  to  supply  other  than  the  best  design, 
material,  and  workmanship.  Steam-engine  makers  of  late  vears 
have  been  paying  greater  attention  to  design  in  order  to  ensure 
economy,  but  it  is  notable  that  quite  a  number  when  submitting 
prices  and  designs*  like  to  adhere  to  the  old-fashioned  method  of 
including  as  few  accessories  as  possible  and  stating  that  if  an 
indicating  gear,  revolution -counter,  or  particular  gauge  is  required 
this  will  be  an  extra.  In  a  similar  manner  many  appear  to 
think  owners  will  never  waste  time  testing  an  engine  occasionally, 
and  therefore  do  not  make  provisions  such  as  fitting  thermometer 
pockets  where  necessary. 

A  great  deal  more  intelligent  interest  is  taken  nowadays  by 
those  responsible  for  the  upkeep  of  prime  movers  in  order  to- 


64  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

obtain  the  best  working  results,  and  there  is  therefore  no  reason 
why  makers  should  not  make  provisions  for  assisting  observations; 
probably  these  items  are  stated  as  extras  in  order  to  show  the 
purchaser  the  lowest  possible  price  the  engine  alone  can  be 
supplied  for. 

In  arriving  at  a  decision  as  to  what  prime  mover  to  purchase, 
the  chief  point  is  that  of  fuel  economy  ;  each  offer  must  be 
reduced  to  the  same  conditions  and  considered  on  its  merits.  In 
order  to  simplify  this  matter,  makers  must  have  these  conditions 
clearly  stated  to  them,  otherwise  the  steam  consumption  may  be 
.stated  in  any  of  the  following  ways  which  may  or  may  not  include 
power  required  for  driving  auxiliary  plant  such  as  circulating 
pumps  and  air  pumps  : — 

Steam  per  kw.  per  hour. 

Steam  per  i.h.p.  per  hour. 

Steam  per  b.h.p.  per  hour. 

Any  of  the  above  may  also  be  arrived  at  in  more  ways  than 
one  ;  for  example,  measured  as  water  fed  into  the  boilers, 
measured  as  condensed  steam  from  the  surface  condenser. 

The  first  method  is  generally  adopted  for  engines  equipped 
with  jet  condensing  plants,  and  gives  a  result  which  is  slightly 
higher  than  the  true  steam  consumption  owing  to  the  leakages 
which  may  take  place  between  the  feed-water  measuring  tank  and 
the  engine  stop  valve  ;  the  difference  generally  being  made  up  of 
-the  following  losses,  viz.:  — 

From  feed-water  pipe  joints. 

Safety  -valves. 

Boiler  blow-off  cocks. 

Economizer  relief  valves,  blow-down  valves  and  joints. 

Steam -pipe  joints. 

Steam  traps. 

Inaccuracy  in  reading  water-level  in  boilers  at  finish  of  test. 

Condensation  in  steam-pipes. 

The  majority  of  these  would  be  guarded  against  during  a  test, 
"but  the  last  item  is  one  which  cannot  be  eliminated  altogether. 
Where  a  test  is  conducted  by  measuring  the  condensate  from  a 
surface  condenser,  the  result  gives  the  amount  of  steam  which  has 
passed  through  the  engine,  and  this  figure  represents  more 
correctly  the  actual  steam  consumption. 

It  would  therefore  be  obviously  unfair  to  compare  the 
guaranteed  steam  consumptions  of  engines  offered  by  different 
maker3  without  considering  in  which  manner  the  test  figures 
would  be  arrived  at,  and  it  should  further  be  stated  over  what 
period  the  test  must  last.  In  a  cement  works  there  will  be  no 
difficulty  in  arranging  a  test  of  at  least  eight  hours  ;  anything 
less  should  not  be  considered,  as  snap  tests  of  short  duration  are 


POWER    PLANTS  65 

apt  to  give  misleading  results  ;  an  engine  must  not  be  accepted 
on  these  tests  alone,  and  it  should  be  demanded  that  it  is  able  to 
carry  full  load  for  a  continuous  period  of  at  least  168  hours 
without  undue  trouble. 

Ver}r  often,  in  spite  of  all  preparations  for  an  official  test, 
it  so  happens  a  slight  variation  will  be  found  in  the  degree  of 
superheat  and  the  vacuum  obtained,  and  as  these  figures  affect  the 
steam  consumption  in  a  very  marked  degree  it  will  be  necessary  to 
make  an  allowance  for  these  differences,  and  in  order  to  avoid  any 
misunderstanding  as  to  what  corrections  may  be  made  it  is 
advisable  that  these  figures  should  be  previously  agreed  to  and 
inserted  in  the  specification. 

The  initial  cost  of  the  engines  will  naturally  be  the  first  item 
considered  by  the  purchasers,  but  a  final  selection  should  not  be 
based  on  this  figure  only  ;  the  most  important  point  to  be  con- 
sidered is  that  of  fuel  economy,  and  even  this  must  not  be 
considered  alone,  as  an  engine  which  may  be  guaranteed  to  possess, 
and  in  fact  may  possess,  a  low  steam  consumption  at  the  beginning 
of  its  life,  can  very  easily  lose  its  pristine  economy  after  a  few 
months  wear  and  subsequently  prove  a  very  uneconomical  unit  to 
run  ;  consequently,  the  greatest  criticism  must  be  paid  to  the 
vital  points  of  the  designs  offered  which  bear  an  effect  on  sustained 
economy,  otherwise  the  purchasers  may  be  saddled  with  a  con- 
siderably higher  yearly  fuel  bill  than  was  anticipated.  This 
point  will  easily  be  realized  when  it  is  considered  that  an  increased 
steam  consumption  of  1  Ib.  per  h.p.  hour  on  an  engine  of 
1,000  i.h.p.,  working  168  hours  per  week,  will  require  under  the 
most  favourable  conditions  an  additional  coal  consumption  of 
9  tons  per  week. 

The  economical  running  results  obtained  from  modern  internal 
combustion  engines,  due  to  their  high  thermal  efficiency,  makes 
this  type  of  motive-power  one  which  must  not  be  overlooked. 

There  are  quite  a  number  of  excellent  designs  on  the  market, 
and  this  fact  makes  the  matter  of  choice  a  problem  of  considerable 
difficulty  in  order  to  ensure  obtaining  the  right  type  of  engine  ; 
in  fact,  the  problem  should  only  be  undertaken  by  an  engineer 
having  an  intimate  knowledge  of  this  class  of  prime  mover  and 
the  nature  of  the  service  which  will  be  demanded  of  it,  otherwise 
indifferent  results  and  considerable  trouble  will  certainly  accrue. 

The  extremely  heavy  and  comparatively  slow-running  type  of 
gas-engine  may  be  looked  upon  as  hardly  the  type  which  would 
be  adopted  on  a  new  works.  Of  recent  years  the  light  multi- 
cylinder  type,  running  from  200  to  300  r.p.m.,  has  been  brought 
to  a  very  high  pitch  of  perfection,  and  will  be  found  a  good 
type  to  adopt  in  sizes  from  250  to  1,000  b.h.p.  when  working  in 
conjunction  with  a  gas-producing  plant,  and  provided  this  is 
sufficiently  large  to  warrant  the  installation  of  a  plant  for  the 


06  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

recovery  of  by-products,  the  revenue  earned  will  prove  a  valuable 
help  towards  reduction  of  running  costs. 

The  characteristic  points  of  an  internal  combustion  engine  may 
be  summarized  as  follows  : — 

(1)  When  operating  at  full  load  have  a  high  thermal  efficiency 

in  the  neighbourhood  of  30  per  cent  as  against  12  to 
15  per  cent  obtained  with  steam-engines. 

(2)  Have  practically  no  capacity  for  overload. 

(3)  Massive  construction  due  to  high-cylinder  pressures. 

(4)  Cylinders  require  water-cooling  owing  to  high  tempera- 

tures generated,  and    in  some  instances  pistons  and 
piston-rods  are  water-cooled. 

(5)  Capital  outlay  is  higher  than  that  for  a  similar-sized 

steam-engine  and  boiler,  etc. 

(6)  Reliability  and  ease  of  starting  do  not  compare  so  favour- 

ably with  steam-engines. 

(7)  Frequent    periodical    opening    up  to    clean    out    carbon 

deposit,  and  grind  in  valves,  etc.,  render  it  imperative 
to  have  one  engine  almost  always  out  of  commission. 

BOILER  PLANT 

The  type  of  boiler  selected  will  depend  chiefly  upon  the  amount 
of  steam  required  per  hour,  the  quality  of  feed-water,  and  the 
class  of  fuel  available. 

In  a  well-arranged  works  the  demand  for  steam  will  be  of 
a  comparatively  steady  nature  throughout  the  week,  and  the  field 
of  selection  may  be  narrowed  down  to  : — 

(1)  "Water-tube  boilers. 

(2)  Drum  type  boilers. 

The  former  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  viz.: — 
Straight  tube  boilers  (e.g.  Babcock). 
Bent  tube  boilers  (e.g.  Stirling). 

These  boilers  are  constructed  in  sizes  capable  of  evaporating 
over  30,000  Ib.  water  per  hour  and  will  carry  considerable  over- 
load ;  they  are  suitable  for  dealing  with  sudden  demands  owing 
to  their  capacity  for  rapid  steam-raising,  and  have  been  proved 
to  possess  a  better  evaporative  efficiency  than  drum  type  boilers. 
The  majority  possess  the  disadvantage  of  numerous  joints, 
and  demand  feed-water  of  the  best  quality  in  order  to  avoid 
attendant  troubles  due  to  scale,  etc. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  drum  type  boiler,  which  is  repre- 
sented by 

(1)  Lancashire  boilers, 

(2)  Yorkshire  boilers, 

will   only  evaporate  about   12,500lb.   water  per  hour  with   the 
largest  sizes  ;  they  do  not  respond  so  rapidly  to  increased  demands 


POWER    PLANTS  67 

for  steam  as  the  water- tube  type,  neither  are  they  quite  so 
economical ;  they,  however,  have  the  advantage  of  accessibility, 
thus  enabling  every  possible  part  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
inspected  with  ease  each  time  they  become  due  for  cleaning. 

The  amount  of  repairs  required  by  this  type  of  boiler  are 
extremely  small  in  a  well-cared-for  plant,  and  there  is  always 
the  certainty  that  when  put  into  commission  after  being  off  for 
cleaning,  etc.,  practically  no  trouble'  need  be  anticipated 
unless  caused  by  gross  carelessness. 

Where  trouble  may  be  anticipated  on  account  of  the  nature 
of  the  feed-water  supply,  the  best  class  of  boiler  to  install  will 
undoubtedly  be  the  drum  type,  though  of  course  the  provision  of 
a  water-softening  plant  would  allow  either  class  of  boiler  to  be 
adopted  without  hesitation. 

There  will  always  be  a  slight  formation  of  scale  however  well 
the  softening  plant  performs  its  duty  ;  in  fact,  it  is  not  wise1 
to  carry  out  the  water-softening  process  to  such  a  degree  as  to 
eliminate  every  particle  of  scale-forming  material,  the  use  of 
oversoftened  water  being  quite  as  bad  as  using  water  which  has 
not  been  treated  at  all. 

When  laying  down  this  part  of  the  plant  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  boiler  settings  are  properly  designed,  and  all  risk  of 
cracks  and  air  leakages  eliminated  where  possible ;  provision 
must  be  made  so  that  the  flues  are  easily  accessible,  and  flue 
dust,  etc.,  is  removable  with  the  least  amount  of  labour  and 
trouble,  otherwise  this  necessary  work  which  has  often  to  be 
carried  out  will  not  be  performed  as  efficiently  as  it  should  be 
by  those  whose  duty  it  is  to  perform  this  task. 

The  arrangement  of  the  flues  must  be  carefully  thought  out 
so  as  to  facilitate  cleaning,  and  where  an  economizer  is  installed 
the  arrangement  of  the  flues  must  be  such  as  will  permit  these 
being  cleaned  at  proper  intervals  whilst  the  boilers  are  at  work, 
without  trusting  to  the  opportunity,  which  never  arises  when  it 
should,  that  the  works  will  close  down  at  some  future  date  for  a 
few  days  holiday,  with  the  result  that  this  part  of  the  plant  will 
not  be  cleaned  as  often  as  it  should,  and  will  be  working  under 
unfavourable  conditions  for  a  large  portion  of  its  time. 

In  the  event  of  the  flues  being  arranged  so  as  to  pass  the 
flue  gases  either  through  the  economizer  or  direct  to  the  chimney, 
as  desired,  it  will  very  readily  be  noticed  during  cleaning  opera- 
tions what  a  beneficial  effect  an  economizer  has  on  the  reduction 
of  the  fuel  bill,  and  where  any  considerable  load  is  being  carried 
the  reduction  in  temperature  of  the  feed-water  will  very  likely 
demand  an  additional  boiler  being  put  into  commission,  with  the 
resultant  increase  in  the  weekly  coal  bill.  It  will  therefore  be 
wise  in  instances  where  a  fairly  large  economizer  is  installed, 
to  consider  the  expedient  of  so  arranging  it  that  one  half  can 


68  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

be  laid  off  for  cleaning-  whilst  the  other  half  is  in  use.  Such 
an  arrangement  will  be  of  benefit  to  the  boilers  as  doing  away 
with  feeding  with  comparatively  cold  water,  and  would  allow 
cleaning  operations  to  be  carried  out  at  proper  stated  intervals 
independently  of  conditions  on  the  works,  and  the  saving  in 
fuel  during  these  times  will  more  than  pay  for  the  cost  of  labour 
required  for  these  operations. 

It  is  always  a  wise  plan  to  fit  a  "  tell-tale"  pressure  gauge 
in  order  to  record  the  maximum  pressure  obtained  on  the 
economizer  and  thus  act  as  a  safeguard  against  carelessness  in 
handling  the  feed  pumps  ;  in  addition  substantial  thermometers 
should  be  fitted  at  the  inlet  and  outlet  so  as  to  keep  track  on 
the  temperatures  obtained,  as  feeding  water  at  less  than  90  to 
100°  F.  will  induce  sweating  at  the  bottom  ends  of  the  pipes 
with  resultant  corrosion  and  wasting  away;  whilst  the  outlet 
temperature  will  show  whether  the  economizer  is  performing 
its  duty. 

FEED  PUMPS 

These  must  be  selected  with  an  eye  to  economy  and  reliability; 
the  type  will  depend  in  a  measure  upon  the  design  of  the  power- 
house itself. 

A  failure  of  water  supply  for  the  boilers  will  mean  a  total 
shut-down  for  the  works  unless  the  defect  can  be  remedied  in 
a  very  few  minutes,  therefore  it  becomes  necessary  to  make  pro- 
vision for  a  standby. 

In  the  case  where  a  reciprocating  steam-engine  of  the  slow 
revolution  type  is  installed,  a  common  arrangement  is  to  drive 
the  feed  pump  from  the  air-pump  levers  ;  in  such  cases  a  very 
simple  and  economical  type  of  pump  may  be  fitted  and  a  standby 
pump  of  the  steam-driven  reciprocating  type  is  arranged  to  feed 
the  boilers  when  the  main  engines  are  stopped. 

A  plant  arranged  for  electrical  driving  and  having  either 
steam  turbines  or  quick  revolution  engines  could  not  adopt  the 
preceding  arrangements  in  its  entirety  ;  the  tendency  nowadays 
in  such  instances  is  to  use  the  multi-stage  or  turbine  type  centri- 
fugal pump,  which  may  be  direct  coupled  to  an  electric  motor 
or  small  steam  turbine,  the  latter  running  at  speeds  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  3,000  to  4,500  revolutions  per  minute  ;  such  pumps 
have  very  small  clearances  and  it  is  essential  the  water  they  are 
called  upon  to  handle  must  be  reasonably  free  from  scale-forming 
matter,  otherwise  trouble  will  be  experienced  due  to  the  small 
water  passages  becoming  restricted  in  area  with  the  result  the 
pump  will  not  "face  the  boilers  ".  In  order  to  ensure  the  highest 
economy  with  this  type  of  pump  it  is  essential  that  the  interior 
must  be  machined  wherever  possible  to  reduce  skin  friction  and 


POWER    PLANTS  69 

retard  scale  formation  ;  the  impellers  also  must  be  made  of  metal 
which  will  resist  corrosion. 

Both  the  electrically  and  steam  turbine  driven  type  of  pump 
have  proved  efficient  and  capable  of  running  many  months  at 
a  stretch  without  stoppages  of  any  kind,  requiring  little  attention 
beyond  oiling  the  bearings;  and  as  an  instance  of  this,  a  pump  of 
the  steam-driven  type  under  the  author's  care  has  run  for  periods 
of  six  months  without  any  stop,  at  a  speed  of  4,150  r.p.m.,  during 
which  time  the  number  of  revolutions  made  amounted  to  the  very 
respectable  total  of  considerably  over  one  thousand  million,  to  be 
precise  1,087,632,000.  An  examination  of  the  pump  after  this 
run  showed  absolutely  no  signs  of  wear,  and  it  may  be  said  the 
stoppage  was  solely  made  to  give  the  pump  a  rest. 

A  valuable  feature  of  their  operation  is  noticeable  in  the 
reduction  of  stresses  in  the  feed-water  pipes,  thus  eliminating 
vibration  and  leaky  joints  both  in  the  pipes  themselves  as  well 
as  the  economizers.  The  choice  of  method  of  driving  may  be 
a  matter  of  individual  taste,  though  the  decision  should  not  be 
allowed  to  rest  at  this  stage,  as  there  are  other  important  points 
to  consider ;  the  pumps  will  be  continuously  in  operation,  and 
it  will  be  advisable  on  this  account  to  install  a  design  which  has 
been  proved  in  practice  to  give  economical  running  results  and 
should  be  purchased  from  a  firm  which  specializes  in  this  class 
of  work. 

Prices  quoted  may  vary  considerably,  and  a  comparison  will 
probably  show  the  cheapest  pump  is  either  : — 

(1)  Unsuitable  for  the  work  required. 

(2)  Inferior  in  design  and  material. 

(3)  Not  properly  equipped,  entailing  expense  afterwards. 

(4)  Considerably  smaller  in  size. 

If  the  latter,  the  pump  will  of  necessity  have  to  run  at  a 
proportionately  higher  speed  to  obtain  the  output,  meaning  in  the 
case  of  a  steam-driven  reciprocating  pump,  reduced  economy  and 
additional  wear  and  tear. 

The  electrically  driven  type  of  pump  will  be  the  most  efficient 
as  regards  its  power  end,  since  this  will  be  produced  by  the  main 
engines  ;  the  pump  portion,  however,  will  only  have  an  efficiency 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  65  per  cent,  and  further,  the  pump  cannot 
be  used  when  the  main  engines  are  shut  down,  or  when  starting 
up  the  works,  until  current  has  been  delivered  to  the  main  switch- 
board. 

The  steam  turbine  driven  pump  will  have  the  same  efficiency 
for  its  pump  end  as  the  above,  but  for  the  steam  end,  owing  to 
the  small  size  of  its  power  unit,  will  require  at  least  three  to 
five  times  as  much  steam  per  h.p.  according  to  the  size  of  pump, 
and  wrill  therefore  appear  at  first  sight  a  very  extravagant  type 


70  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

to  adopt ;  an  investigation,  however,  will  show  this  is  not  the  case, 

and   the    following   figures     will   explain  this    statement    more 

clearly  : — 

Assume  main  engines    ....    1,500  i.h.p. 

Steam  consumption  per  i.h.p.  hour        .         11  Jib. 

Steam  pressure  at  boilers        .         .         .       180lb. 

Steam  consumption  of  turbine  feed  pump         70  Ib.  per  h.p.  hour. 

Efficiency  of  water  end  of  feed  pumps  .        65  per  cent. 

The  total  amount  of  water  to  be  fed  into  the  boilers  will  be 
somewhat  greater  than  that  required  by  the  main  engines  in  order 
to  make  up  for  the  various  losses  and  also  that  used  for  other 
purposes,  and  is  usually  found  in  plants  of  this  description  to  be> 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  15  per  cent  ;  the  pump  itself  must  also 
be  designed  to  work  against  a  pressure  of  at  least  20  per  cent 
greater  than  the  boiler  pressure,  to  allow  for  the  friction  in  the 
feed-water  and  economizer  pipes  and  provide  sufficient  excess 
pressure  to  pump  against  boiler  pressure. 

In  the  case  under  consideration, 
Feed-water  required  per  minute  will  be 


Manometric  head 

=•  (180  X  2-30)  +  20  o/o  =  497 

say  500ft.  head. 
Power  required  will  be 


Steam  consumption  of  turbine  -driven  pump 

=  7-7  h.p.  X  70  =  539  Ib.  per  hour. 

Equivalent  steam  consumption  of  electrically  driven  pump 
=  7'7  h.p.  X  11J  X  efficiency  of  engine  and  generator  x  efficiency 
of  motor  =  105  Ib.  per  hour. 

The  electrically  driven  pump  uses  up  all  the  power  supplied 
for  its  operation  ;  the  main  engines,  as  producers  of  thirs  power,, 
having  only  made  use  of  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  available 
heat  in  the  steam  which  could  be  charged  against  the  pump  ;  on 
the  other  hand,  the  steam  used  for  the  turbine  pump  after  per- 
forming its  useful  work  in  the  pump  may  on  account  of  its 
freedom  from  oil,  be  exhausted  directly  into  the  hot-well  or  feed- 
water  tank  at  a  pressure  of  2  to  5  Ib.  per  square  inch,  still 
possessing,  due  to  its  latent  heat,  a  very  large  heating  value, 
capable  of  raising  the  temperature  of  the  feed-water  to  a  tem- 
perature which  will  effect  considerable  economy  on  the  coal  bill. 

There  are  several  conditions  which  will  affect  the  initial 
temperature  of  the  feed-water,  e.g.  where  a  jet  condenser  is 


POWER    PLANTS  71 

employed,  the  condensed  steam  mixes  with  the  cooling  water  and 
the  resultant  mixture  is  not  usually  used  again  unless  of  good 
quality  and  free  from  scale-forming  matter  ;  the  final  temperature 
of  this  water  usually  varies  from  100°  F.  to  140°  F.,  according 
to  the  vacuum  produced;  some  of  this  heat  would  be  lost  before  the 
water  reached  the  feed-water  tank,  and  the  temperature  in  this 
instance  will  probably  be  10°  lower  than  the  above  figures. 

2.  In  the  case  where  a  high-class  reciprocating  engine  is 
employed  in  conjunction  with  a  surface  condenser,  the  condensed 
steam  may  be  used  again  with  the  addition  of  a  small  amount  of 
water  for  make-up  purposes,  and  an  engine  of  this  type  operating 
with  a  vacuum  of  26  in.  in  the  L.P.  cylinder  would  generally  show 
28  in.  vacuum  in  the  air  pump,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  tem- 
perature of  100°  F.,  and  the  mixture  of  condensed  steam  and 
make-up  water  would  give  a  final  temperature  of,  say,  85°  F. 
in  the  feed- water  tank. 

3.  With  a  steam  turbine  it  is  of  course  essential  to  carry  as 
high  a  vacuum  as  possible,  and  to  attain  this  end  a  very  large 
amount  of  cooling  water  must  be  used,  with  the  result  the  con- 
densed steam  is  reduced  to  a  temperature  not  exceeding  10°  F. 
greater  than  that  of  the  cooling  water  or,  say,  70°  F. 

4.  Where  the  feed-water  is  simply  taken  from  the  works  water 
supply  the  temperature  will  usually  have  a  mean  of  60°  F. 

In  the  above  instances,  where  it  is  necessary  to  pass  the 
boiler  feeder  througih  a  softener  prior  to  delivering  into  the' 
feed-water  tank,  it  may  be  found  advantageous  to  heat 
the  water  with  live  steam  to  assist  precipitation  of  scale-forming' 
sialts,  in  which  case  the  temperature  leaving  the  softener  may  be 
as  high  as  180°F.  with  an  open  tank,  when  the  ventilation  of 
the  pump-house  must  receive  careful  consideration  to  prevent 
deterioration  of  the  roof  due  to  rusting,  or  rotting  of  timbers,  and 
avoid  the  unpleasant  appearance  of  dripping  walls  and  pipes  in 
cold  weather. 

Taking  case  No.  2  and  assuming  a  feed-water  temperature 
of  85°  F'.,  we  "will  now  consider  the  comparative  efficiencies  of  the 
two  pumps  under  consideration  :  — 

(1)  Electrically  driven  pump,  105  Ib.  steam  per  hour. 

(2)  Steam  turbine  driven  pump,  539  Ib.  steam  per  hour. 

In  the  first  instance  no  further  gain  can  be  obtained  from  the 
steam  employed,  this  being  all  used  in  the  main  engines  ;  the 
hotwell  temperature  will  therefore  remain  85°  F. 

In  the  other  case  the  exhaust  steam  will  have  a  pressure  of 
not  less  than  5  Ib.  per  square  inch  above  atmosphere  corresponding 
to  a  temperature  of  228°  F.,  and  will  contain  the  following  heating 
power  : — 

Latent  heat  960  +  (228  —  32) 
—  Total  heat  of   1,156   B.T.U.  per  Ib.   of  steam. 


72  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

This  heat  is  available  for  heating-  the  feed-water,  and  will 
raise  its  temperature  in  the  case  under  consideration  to  112°F., 
or  an  increase  of 

112  — 85=27°  F. 

The  effect  of  this  difference  of  temperature  may  have  either 
of  the  following  results  on  the  boilers  :  — 

(1)  To  decrease  the  coal  consumption  for  the  same  evaporation. 

(2)  To  increase  the  evaporation  for  the  same  coal  consumption. 
Applying-  the  latter  effect,  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  be 

put  into   each   pound  of    water  evaporated   by   the   boilers   at 
180  Ib.  per  square  inch  is — 

Latent    heat  +  (temperature    of    steam  —  temp,    of    feed-water) 
=  845 +  (379 -8— 112) 
=  1112-8  B.T.U. 

The  increased  evaporation  for  the  same  fuel  consumption 
will  be 

Ib.  water  evaporated  per  hour  X  rise  in  temp,  of  feed-water 
Total  heat  in  1  Ib .  of  steam 

330  X  60  X  27          ,n  .., 

r,10  o =  480-lb.  steam  per  hour. 

1112" 8 

This  amount  of  steam  should  rightly  be  credited  to  the  turbine 
pump,  and  consequently  the  net  amount  of  steam  used  by  it 
will  be 

539  — '  480  =  59  Ib.  per  hour, 
as  against  105  Ib.  previously  found  for  the  electrical  pump. 

Looked  at  in  another  way  which  will  probably  be  more  readily 
appreciated,  the  saving  in  fuel,  based  on  a  running  week  of 
168  hours  and  a  boiler  evaporation  of  8  Ib.  water  per  Ib.  of 
coal,  is 

480  X  168 

=  4-o  tons  per  week. 

8  X  2240 

Both  the  foregoing  types  of  pump  entail  a  fairly  large 
capital  outlay,  and  though  this  is  not  really  a  very  large  item 
it  will  not  do  to  dismiss  the  subject  at  this  point  as  there 
still  remains  the  well-known  and  faithful  steam-driven 
reciprocating  pump,  which  hate  been  modernized  so  as  to  give 
very  economical  results. 

The  efficiency  of  the  water  end  of  these  pumps  when  the 
feed  tank  is  in  the  same  level  or  has  a  slight  head  above  th© 
pump  barrel  is  high,  and  consequently  the  h.p.  for  a  similar 
duty  is  somewhat  less  than  that  required  for  the  preceding  pumps; 
the  steam  consumption  per  hour  h.p.  is  also  somewhat  leiss  than 
that  of  the  turbine  pump,  due  to  the  fact  of  the  steam  being  used 
expansively. 


POWER    PLANTS  7a 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  oil  is  present  in  the  exhaust,  this 
cannot  be  used  for  feed-water  heating  unless  previously  passed 
through  an  oil  separator,  or  through  a  heater  designed  so  that 
the  steam  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  feed- water. 

It  will  be  imperative  to  have  a  steam-driven  pump  for  a 
standby,  and  either  of  the  following  combinations  may  be 
adopted: — 

(1)  Electrically  driven  centrifugal  pump  and  steam  turbine 

pump. 

(2)  One  steam  turbine  pump  and  one  vertical  reciprocating 

steam  pump. 

(3)  Two   vertical  reciprocating   steam  pumps. 

(4)  Two  steam  turbine  driven  pumps. 

Either  of  the  first  three  arrangements  would  usually  be 
adopted,  though  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  adoption  of 
steam-driven  pumps  will  have  the  advantage  of  rendering  the 
boiler  plant  independent  of  the  power-house. 

STEAM    AND   FEED-WATER    PIPES 

The  general  practice  is  to  use  pressures  varying  from  120  Ib. 
to  180lb.  per  isquare  inch  and  superheat  the  steam,  in  some 
cases  to  a  final  temperature  of  600°  Fahr. 

Reciprocating  engines  are  found  to  give  good  running 
results  with  a  superheat  of  100°  F.  This  is  generally 
sufficient  to  ensure  the  steam  being  dry  at  the  L.P.  exhaust* 
and  150°F.  appears  to  be  the  maximum  advisable  superheat 
to  employ  with  this  class  of  engine.  Oil  the  other  hand,  the 
design  of  steam  turbines  and  their  freedom  from  lubricating 
oil  allows  the  use  of  higher  pressures  and  superheat,  generally 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  200°  F.,  and  instances  of  250°  F. 
are  met  with. 

The  accepted  materials  from  which  pipes  are  usually  made 
are: — 

Cast  iron, 

Wrought  iron, 

Mild  steel. 

No  modern  plant  with  any  pretensions  to  size  or  economy 
will  have  a  boiler  pressure  so  low  as  100  Ib.  per  square  inch, 
and  this  may  be  considered  as  the  limit  of  pressure  up  to  which 
cast  iron  should  be  employed,  especially  if  superheated  steam 
is  used  owing  to  the  increased  expansion  and  deterioration  of 
the  metal  which  is  liable  to  take  place  at  high  temperatures. 

The  materials  which  are  almost  invariably  used  are  wrought 
iron  and  mild  steel,  the  tensile  strength  of  which  allows  the 
pipe  to  be  comparatively  light  and  thin,  at  the  same  time 
providing  a  high  factor  of  safety;  such  pipes  have  also  a 


74  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

considerable  amount  of  flexibility  and  are  better  able  to  cope 
with  the  strains  due  to  expansion  and  sometimes  "  water 
hammer  "  which  may  take  place,  either  due  to  errors  of  design 
or  carelessness  on  the  part  of  attendants. 

According  to  size  they  are  usually  supplied  in  lapwelded  or 
solid  drawn  steel  from  2  in.  to  20  in.  diameter,  and  may  be  in 
straight  lengths  or  bent  to  suit  any  particular  requirement; 
flanges  are  generally  of  weldless  steel,  stamped  out  of  the  solid 
and  welded  on,  though  in  some  instances  cast  steel  flanges  are 
used  ;  both  types  may  be  faced  straight  across  or  made  spigot 
and  recess. 

For  all-round  work  lapwelded  steam  pipes  with  solid  welded 
flanges  and  "branches  either  welded  or  riveted  on  will  be  found 
to  satisfy  all  requirements  for  pipes  from  2  in.  to  12  in. 
bore,  and  for  sizes  above  this  flanges  and  branches  are  preferably 
riveted  on.  The  usual  thickness  for  mild  steel  steam  pipes 
for  pressures  up  to  200  Ib.  per  square  inch  may  be  taken  as — 

Sin.  to  7  in.  diam.  inclusive,  Jin.  thick. 
8  in.   to  10  in.      ,,  ,,         T6F  in.       „ 

11  in.  to  12  in.      ,,  ,,          f  in.       ,, 

The  material  from  which  bends  are  made  should  always  be 
several  gauges  thicker  than  that  used  for  straight  lengths. 

Owing  to  the  length  which  this  type  of  pipe  may  be  made 
the  number  of  joints  are  considerably  reduced,  and  in  order  to 
secure  the  best  results  these  should  be  made  of  the  thinnest 
possible  material;  soft  brass  corrugated  rings  covered  with  a 
putty  composed  of  red  and  white  lead;  or  one  of  the  many 
jointing  compounds  now  on  the  market  may  be  used  for  the 
purpose,  or  as  an  alternative  high-pressure  asbestos  sheeting 
-eV  in.  or  7rVin-  thick  smeared  over  with  boiled  oil,  either  of 
which  method's  will  be  found  to  give  good  results. 

Bolt  holes  should  always  be  drilled  and  spaced  according  to 
some  definite  system,  preferably  the  British  Standard  dimensions, 
so  as  to  ensure  interchangeability. 

Arrangements  must  be  made  in  the  layout  to  allow  complete 
freedom  for  expansion,  and  proper  supports  and  anchors 
provided  where  necessary;  drainage  also  must  receive  careful 
attention. 

The  tendency  in  the  design  of  many  power  plants  is  to 
consider  the  .steam  pipes  as  the  subject  of  a  separate  and  distinct 
contract  from  that  of  the  boilers  ;  in  such  instances  it  is  possible 
that  the  system  adopted  may  not  be  suitable  for  obtaining  the 
most  economical  results  or  the  best  arrangement;  for  instance, 
the  design  suitable  for  a  works  operating  ten  hours  per  day 
will  not  entirely  meet  the  requirements  of  a  plant  running 
continuously. 


POWER    PLANTS  75 

Each  contractor  will  be  satisfied  to  carry  out  the  particular 
work  allotted  to  him  as  conscientiously  as  possible,  but  whether 
the  final  result  obtained  is  satisfactory  is  a  matter  which  is 
no  concern  of  his,  consequently  the  whole  matter  must  be 
carefully  schemed  out  and  working  drawings  made  before  any 
work  is  undertaken,  or  failing  this,  the  whole  layout  of  the 
boilers  and  pipes  undertaken  by  one  contractor,  preferably  the 
boiler-makers. 

A  visit  to  a  well -arranged,  and  carefully  supervised  boiler 
plant  with  everything  in  good  working  order,  no  signs  of  leaky 
joints,  etc.,  does  not  convey  very  much  to  the  lay  mind,  it  all 
looks  so  very  simple;  but  when  one  reflects  upon  the  enormous 
pent-up  energy  throughout  the  system  it  may  be  easily 
realized  that  the  dangers  in  connexion  with  modern  high- 
pressure  plants  are  such  that  it  is  essential  the  design,  erection, 
and  running  must  only  be  in  the  hands  of  competent  men. 
Not  only  must  the  system  be  such  as  to  ensure  safety  and 
economy,  but  arrangements  should  be  made  that  where  possible 
repairs  may  be  carried  out  during  ordinary  working  hours 
without  impairing  the  running  of  the  plant. 

In  order  to  comply  with  legal  requirements  it  is  essential 
that  this  portion  of  the  plant  be  thoroughly  examined  at  stated 
times  by  a  competent  person,  and  as  the  attendant  risks  are 
usually  undertaken  by  some  recognized  Insurance  Company 
such  examinations  are  carried  out  by  their  qualified  inspectors, 
at  periods  not  exceeding  fourteen  months  intervals.  Such 
examinations,  of  course,  do  not  relieve  those  in  charge  of  the 
boilers  of  their  own  responsibility,  and  it  is  their  duty  also  to 
make  a  daily  tour  of  inspection  and  also  examine  every  boiler, 
both  internally  and  externally,  each  time  it  is  off  for  cleaning 
purposes. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  boilerfs  and  pipes  will 
undoubtedly  be  insured,  the  best  course  that  can  be  adopted  is 
to  make  arrangements  with  a  Company  who  undertake  such 
insurances,  and  after  settling  the  arrangements  of  the  plant  to 
allow  this  Company  to  inspect  both  the  boilers  and  pipes  during 
manufacture,  both  as  regards  raw  material  and  details  of 
construction.  Every  effort  must  be  made  to  secure  economy 
of  operation,  and  as  fuel  cost  will  be  the  largest  item  of 
expenditure  it  is  necessary  that  ^every  heat  unit  put  into  the 
steam  must  be  used  usefully;  the  pipes  must  be  covered 
efficiently  so  as  to  reduce  radiation  losses  to  the  lowest 
practicable  limit.  All  water  due  to  condensation  in  the  main 
pipes  or  from  steam  traps,  etc.,  should  wherever  possible  be 
returned  either  to  the  hotwell  or  collected  and  returned  direct 
to  the  boilers. 

In  most  cases  this  water  is  very  near  to  boiling-point  and 


76  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

contains  a  considerable  heating-  value  ;  a  few  moments 
observation  of,  say,  a  steam  trap,  under  working  conditions,  will 
soon  give  an  idea  as  to  the  amount  of  waiter  which  can  be 
thrown  away  due  to  this  cause  alone;  it  may  not  appear  much 
at  first  sight,  but  goes  on  week  after  week,  amounting  to  quite 
a  large  figure  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  a  little  calculation 
will  show  how  much  coal  has  been  used  to  no  purpose  by 
allowing  such  a  waste. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  eteam  trap  may  have  valves  which 
are  not  of  a  suitable  material  to  deal  with  superheated  steam; 
the  frequent  regrinding  of  these  becomes  irksome  to  the  man 
appointed  to  carry  out  such  repairs,  when  he  will  probably  hit 
upon  the  brilliant  expedient  of  connecting  the  discharge  up  to 
a  drain.  Out  of'  sight  is  out  of  mind,  and  unless  there  is 
someone  on  the  job  with,  a  curious  turn  of  mind,  it  will  not  be 
long  before  it  is  simply  a  case  of  blowing  away  live  steam  and 
consequently  money,  which  will  be  charged  against  running  costs ; 
it  is  therefore  a  wise  plan  to  adopt  a  system  for  the  collection 
of  all  possible  leakages  and  return  them  to  the  boilers  as  stated 
above. 

SUPERHEATERS 

In  practically  all  cases  these  are  arranged  at  the  back  end 
of  each  boiler  in  the  downtake  and  obtain  their  heat  from  the 
flue  gases,  leaving  the  internal  flues  of  the  boilers.  There  are 
quite  a  number  of  designs  on  the  market,  all  of  which  have 
been  installed  with  considerable  success  ;  their  manufacture  is 
generally  a  speciality  and  the  outcome  of  much  experience; 
their  design  and  the  material  employed  leave  little  to  be  desired; 
in  fact,  the  construction  of  the  top  boxes  into  which  the  tubes 
are  fitted  is  a  very  high-class  piece  of  workmanship.  In  all 
cases  it  is  imperative  they  should  be  fitted  with  the  following- 
accessories  :  — 

Cast-iron  bearer  plates  for  carrying  the  superheater  on  the 

brickwork. 

Spring  loaded  safety  valve. 

Thermometer  pockets  and  thermometer  reading  to  600°  F. 
Draining  valves. 
Isolating   plates   or   dampers. 

The  economy  due  to  using  superheated  steam  is  considerable, 
and  for  rough  calculations  it  may  be  taken  that  if  the  steam 
is  sufficiently  superheated  to  ensure  dryness  but  no  superheat 
at  the  engine  stop  valve  a  saving  of  5  per  cent  will  result;  the 
further  addition  of  superheat  beyond  this  point  will  show  a 
reduction  in  steam  consumption  of  1  per  cent  for  each  10°  F.  of 


POWEE  PLANTS  77 

added  superheat,  and  it  is  usually  accepted  that  the  following 
saving  may  be  obtained  :  — 

60°  F.  superheat  ...     5  per  cent 

80°  F.  „  ...  10 

100°  F.  „  ...   14 

150°  F.  „  ...  20 

200°  F.  „  ...  25 

250°  F.  .  30 


CHAPTER  VIII 
MISCELLANEOUS 

STORAGE  AND   PACKING 

PROVISIONS  must  be  made  for  storing  cement,  because  the 
process  of  manufacture  is  continuous  ;  sales  are  not,  there  are 
periods  of  slackness  or  abnormal  demands. 

Different  classes  of  work  require  different  setting  times — quick, 
medium,  and  slow. 

Many  users  of  cement  prefer  not  to  accept  the  cement  if  it 
is  many  degrees  above  the  temperature  of  the  air. 

All  cement  used  on  large  contracts  is  sampled  at  the  factory  ; 
approximately  equal  portions  are  selected  from  twelve  different 
positions  in  the  heap,  or  heaps,  from  each  250  tons  or  part  thereof, 
and  these  must  be  held  until  approved  and  required. 

This,  of  course,  necessitates  extensive  storage  arrangements, 
at  least  a  month's  output,  for  cement. 

The  cement  will,  in  most  cases,  improve  by  storage,  especially 
if  it  can  be  so  stored  that  air  can  get  at  the  mass. 

CEMENT  STOREHOUSES 

The  typical  design  in  Great  Britain  consists  of  a  long  low 
frame  building,  divided  into  bins  by  means  of  wooden  partitions. 
These  bins  hold  250  to  500  tons. 

The  cement  is  brought  from  the  grinding  mills  by  overhead 
screw  conveyors,  spouts  being  arranged  to  the  centre  of  the  bins 
from  openings  in  the  trough  of  the  conveyor  controlled  by  slide 
valves. 

Covered  loading  platforms  are  so  provided  that  the  cement 
may  be  loaded  direct  on  to  a  wharf,  if  the  works  are  on  a  canal 
or  river,  or  on  to  a  railway. 

Eecently  reinforced  concrete  silos  have  been  introduced,  but 
should  be  a  matter  of  much  deliberation  before  being  under- 
taken, especially  if  space  is  not  a  consideration,  for  the  following 
reasons  : — 

Initial  cost  :  long  experience  has  demonstrated  that  if  a 
saving  is  necessary  it  should  be  effected  on  the  buildings  and  not 
on  the  machinery,  which  must  be  of  the  heaviest  and  best. 

Difficulty  in  getting  an  average  sample  from  twelve  different 
positions  in  the  heap,  as  recommended  by  British  Standard 
Specification. 


MISCELLANEOUS  79 

Cement  adhering-  to  the  sides  of  the  bins,  and  ,as  the  bin 
is  being  emptied  lumps  frequently  falling-  and  possibly  spoiling 
the  shipment. 

Cost  of  cleaning  down  the  walls  of  the  bins  and  regrinding  the 
cement. 

Elevating  to  top  of  silo. 

If  automatic  packing  machinery  is  required  equal  facilities- 
are  afforded  in  the  ordinary  storehouse  as  in  the  silo. 

PACKING 

Cement  is  packed  in  wooden  barrels  or  steel  drums  for  export 
or  coastwise  shipment,  and  mostly  in  sacks  for  the  inland  market. 

Barrels  and  drums  vary  in  size,  the  usual  capacity  being 
400  Ib.  net  or  gross,  although  at  times  smaller  sizes  are  used. 

Sacks  mostly  used  are  10,  11,  and  12  to  the  ton. 

All  packages  are  clearly  marked  with  the  brand  of  the 
Company  for  identification. 

In  the  case  of  sacks,  these  are  purchased  from  the 
manufacturers,  the  freight  charges  being  no  more  for  the 
completed  sack  than  the  material,  but  with  wooden  barrels  and 
steel  drums  conditions  are  very  different. 

Although  cement  manufacturers  may  purchase  them  from  an 
outside  source,  the  freight  charges  are  very  high,  the  capacity 
of  a  barrel  or  drum  being  approximately  4'0  cubic  feet. 

A  factory  producing  3,000  tons  of  cement  weekly  would 
require — 

Sacks,  ten  to  a  ton,  30,000. 

Barrels  or  drums,  400  Ib.  net,  16,800. 

So  it  will  be  at  once  apparent  what  a  very  important  question 
the  packing  for  exporting  cement  is,  and  in  estimating  the  cost 
for  a  Portland  Cement  plant  the  machinery  for  the  manufacture 
of  barrels  and  steel  drums  should  be  figured  in. 

The  manufacture  of  casks  and  barrels  by  machinery  is  a 
subject  which  has  constantly  claimed  the  attention  of  inventors 
and  engineers,  and  the  fact  that  nearly  a  thousand  patents  have 
been  taken  out  in  England  and  America  in  the  last  century  for 
improvements  in  cooperage  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  the  importance 
attached  to  this  question.  It  is  wortlhy  of  note  that  British 
firms  are  quite  without  rivals  in  the  production  of  machinery 
for  the  manufacture  of  casks  and  barrels1,  also  for  steel  drama. 

SACK   DEPARTMENT 

The  sack  question  is  a  most  important  one,  and  this  depart- 
ment must  be  well  organized  before  starting  a  factory  ; 
unfortunately,  those  unacquainted  with  the  industry  give  no- 


SO  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

thought  to  the  preparation  of  this  necessary  section,  causing 
trouble  and  extra  expense  afterwards. 

In  the  first  place,  storage  must  be  considered  ;  assuming 
you  are  estimating  for  .an  output  of  3,000  tons  of  cement  per  week, 
half  this  quantity  will  be  loaded  into  sacks,  take  ten  to  the  ton, 
15,000  weekly,  probably  two  months  will  elapse  before  sacks 
begin  to  return,  hence  you  will  require  to  start  with  120,000 
sacks,  provision  being  made  for  another  120,000,  say,  six  weeks 
after  starting. 

This  means  storage  capacity  for  at  least  250,000  sacks. 

A  sack -drying,  cleaning,  and  mending  plant  must  be  provided. 
The  sacks  are  returned  invariably  in  very  bad  condition. 

If  proper  mechanical  appliances  are  installed  no  great  expense 
or  difficulty  is  incurred  ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  no  means  have 
been  provided  endless  expense  is  entailed  in  cleaning,  drying, 
and  mending  by  hand  ;  sacks  -are  never  ready  when  required, 
and  many  men  are  engaged.  A  cost,  if  continued  for  any  length 
of  time,  would  have  paid  for  a  proper  layout. 

Sacks  returned  from  customers  are  checked  and  recorded  on 
the  daily  return  form  by  the  foreman. 

The  consumer  is  charged  with  the  value  of  the  sacks,  with  a 
rebate  for  returned  sacks. 

MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT 

(1)  Sack-cleaning  machine. 

(2)  Drying  apparatus. 

(3)  Sewing  and  darning  machines. 

EQUIPMENT  FOR  MACHINE  SHOP 

One  12  in.  centre  lathe. 

One  6  in.  centre  lathe. 

One  planing  machine  6  ft.  by  2ft.  bed. 

One  shaping  machine  to  24  in.  stroke. 

One  radial  drilling  machine  5  ft.  radius. 

One  sensitive  drilling  machine. 

One  screwing  machine  : 

Whitworth,  f  in.  to  Ijin. 

Gas,  f  in.  to  3  in. 
One  grindstone. 
One  coarse  emery  wheel. 
One  tool  emery  wheel. 
One  hack  saw. 

All  the  above  machines  to  be  power-driven  and  equipped 
with  the  usual  accessories. 

Lifting  appliance  to  be  provided  to  deal  with  heavy  material. 


MISCELLANEOUS  81 

Modern  hand  tools  to  be  available  to  enable  repairs  to  be 
met  and  completed  promptly. 

SMITHY 

Three    blacksmith    fires    with    power    blast. 
One  punch  and  shearing  machine. 

• 
CARPENTERS  AND  WHEELWRIGHTS 

One    circular    saw    bench. 
One  planing-  machine. 
One  band  saw. 


CHAPTER  IX 
COSTS    AND    STATISTICS 

COSTS    OF    THE    MANUFACTUEE    OF 
PORTLAND   CEMENT 

THE  cost  of  installing1  a  Portland  Cement  plant,  owing  to 
problems  into  which  many  factors  enter,  varies  within  wide  limits, 
and  it  is  therefore  wellnigh  impossible  to  give  figures  which 
might  be  reliably  applied  to  every  case. 

Much  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  raw  materials,  which 
may  be  hard  or  soft.  The  first  cost  of  the  machinery  to  deal  with 
the  softer  materials  will  be  less  than  that  of  machinery  to  deal 
with  the  harder  materials. 

Again,  the  distance  apart  of  the  various  raw  materials  may 
be  considerable,  necessitating  conveying  machinery  more  or 
less  costly. 

The  question  of  the  supply  of  water,  which  is  required  in 
large  quantities,  may  considerably  affect  the  first  cost. 

The  supply  of  fuel — coal  is  at  present  generally  used  in  this 
country — and  its  cost  must  have  a  potent  effect  on  the  cost  of  the 
finished  product. 

Then  questions  of  rent,  rates,  taxes,  royalty,  insurance,  and 
depreciation  have  also  to  be  considered. 

Labour,  again,  is  a  highly  important  factor,  and  it  is  necessary, 
in  order  to  keep  the  cost  low,  that  efficient  labour-saving 
machinery  should  be  installed  wherever  possible. 

Management  also  enters  largely  into  the  success  or  failure 
of  the  works,  and  it  behoves  those  in  authority,  who  have  the 
appointing  of  the  manager,  to  closely  study  the  qualifications  of 
the  candidates. 

The  manager  should  have  a  good  all-round  engineering- 
knowledge  and,  above  all,  a  thorough  general  knowledge  of  the 
manufacture  of  cement. 

It  is  becoming  increasingly  important  to  obtain  the  services 
of  a  first-class  chemist  to  control  the  analytical,  testing,  and 
research  work  of  the  factory. 

Given  favourable  conditions  and  a  properly  d'esigned  and  well- 
managed  cement  works,  an  exceedingly  remunerative  return  on 
the  capital  outlay  may  be  confidently  looked  for. 

COST  OF  PLANT 

The  cost  of  building  and  equipping  a  modern  Portland 
Cement  plant  with  rotary  kilns  requires  a  heavy  investment. 


COSTS    AND    STATISTICS 


83 


It  must  be  quite  understood  that  local  conditions  at  home  or 
abroad  would  considerably  alter  the  estimates  given  in  the  table 
below,  which  are  but  an  approximation  with  normal  prices, 
including  land,  working  capital,  and  promotion  expenses. 


Raw  Material. 

Annual  Output. 

Cost  per  Ton. 
Annual  Output. 

Total  Capital 
Outlay. 

Tons. 

£    s.      d. 

£ 

Soft   . 

50,000 

1   10     0 

75,000 

Hard. 

50,000 

1  15     0 

87,500 

Soft   . 

100,000 

176 

137,500 

Hard. 

100,000 

1  12     6 

162,500 

Soft   . 

150,000 

150 

187,000 

Hard. 

150,000 

1  10     0 

225,000 

Soft  materials  include  chalk,  marl,  etc. 

Hard  materials  include  limestone  rock  and  materials  of  a 
similar  nature. 

(Described  on  p.  8.) 

The  approximate  real  investment  in  Portland  Cement  Plants 
in  the  United  States  is  $180,000,000,  producing  90,000,000  barrels 
of  cement,  the  equivalent  of  $2*00  per  barrel  of  yearly  production.1 

A  barrel  of  cement  is  380  Ib.  net. 

Most  of  the  raw  materials  are  of  a  crystalline  nature. 


LABOUR  COSTS   PER   TON  OP   CEMENT— 
OUTPUT  3,000  TONS  PER  WEEK 

Assuming  conditions  are  favourable  as  mentioned  under 
"  Design  and  Construction  ",  the  following  labour  costs  in  the 
various  departments  of  the  factory  may  be  accepted,  although 
it  must  be  fully  understood  that  local  conditions  will  alter 
these  itemized  statements,  viz.  : — 

Formation  and  position  of  raw  material  deposits. 
Distance  of  quarry  from  crushers. 
Cost  of  labour. 

PROCESS   WET 

Material  :    H\ard  Limestone  and  Clay 

A  difficult  combination  where  extreme  fineness  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  a  volume-constant  cement  direct  from  the  grinding 
mill. 

Capacity 
3,000  tons  of  Portland  Cement  a  week. 

1  From  Rock  Products  and  Building  Materials,  November  22,  1913,  Chicago, 
111.,  U.S.A. 


84 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


Quarrying  Limestone  and  Delivering  to  Crushers 

Foreman    0 
One  navvy  driver 
One  wheelsman  . 
One  stoker 
Six  trackmen     . 
Six  banksmen     . 
Two  drillers 
Two  loco  drivers 
Two  firemen 
Two  switchmen 

Average  60  working  hours  per  week. 


Oast  per  ton  of  P.O. 


d. 

3-6 


Quarrying  Clay  and  Delivering  to  Washmill 

Removing  top  soil  or  overburden  from  limestone  and  clay 
deposits,  also,  when  necessary,  working  the  spare  steam  navvy 
in  the  limestone  quarry  which  it  is  desirable  to  install 

One  navvy  driver 
One  wheelsman 
One  fireman 
Four  trackmen  . 
One  loco  driver 
One  fireman 


Ccfet  per  ton  of  P.O. 


1-25 


Average  60  working  hours  per  week. 

Crushing  Limestone  tond  Preparing  Clay  -for  Delivery  to  Mill 

Tippler 

Primary  crushing 


Secondary  crushing     . 
Crushing   rolls    . 
Conveyors     and     elevators 
(six  men) 


^-Cost  per  ton  of  P.C. 


1-0 


Two  men 


Clay  Washing  Mill 

.     Cost  per  ton  of  P.C. 


0-28 


Storage  of  Raw  Material  at  Crushers  and  Clay  Washmill 
(Locomotive  Crane  and  Grab] 


One  driver 
One  labourer 


Cost  per  ton  of  P.C.       .       0'28 


Average  60  working  hours  per  week. 

Carried  forward  .       .       6' 41 


COSTS    AND    STATISTICS  85 

d. 

Brought  forward  .       .       6'41 
Raw  Grinding  Mill  * 

Two  millers       .         .         .1 

£wo  oilers  •   I  Cost  per  ton  on  P.O.  1-16 

Two  conveyormen      .         •   I 

Two  labourers    .         .         .  J 

Average  120  working  hours  per  week  (2  shifts  of  12  hours). 

Slurry  Storage  Tanks  and  Pumps 

Three  men  .       Cost  per  ton  of  P.O.       .       0'36 

Average  168  working  hours  per  week  (3  shifts  of  8  hours). 

Rotary  Kiln 
Three  burners  . 
Three  oilers 
Three     conveyormen     (for  \  Cost  per  ton  of  P.C.       .       T624 

coal  feed  hoppers,  etc.)  . 
Three  cooler  attendants 

Average  168  working  hours  per  week  (3  shifts  of  8  nours). 

Clinker  Storage,  and,  Grinding  Mitt 
Two  millers 
Two   oilers 

Two  conveyormen      .         .   I  Cost  per  ton  o£  p 
Two    general    (for   clinker 
store)      .... 
Average  120  working  hours  per  week  (2  shifts  of  12  hours). 

Coal  Store,  Drying  and  Grinding  Mill 

Two  millers 
Two   oilers 

Two  elevator  and  conveyor- 
men         .... 
Two  coal  dryermen 
Two  labourers    . 

Average  120  working  hours  per  week  (2  shifts  of  12  hours). 

Power  Plant 
Three  engine-drivers  . 
Three  pumpmen 
Three  switchboard 

attendants       .         .         .   |  Cost  per  ton  of  P.C.       .       2'8 
Six  stokers 
Six  coal  trimmers 
Average  168  working  hours  per  week  (3  shifts  of  8  hours). 

Carried  forward  .       .     14-954: 


Cost  per  ton  of  P.C.       .       1'44 


86  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

d. 

Brought  fonvard  .       .     14-954 
Engineer  Staff 
Foreman  fitter  . 
Three  fitters 
One  turner 
Two  repairmen  . 
Two  blacksmiths 


One   carpenter   . 


Cost  per  ton  of  P.C.       .       4' 726 


Two  wheelwrights 
One  bricklayer  . 
Three  electricians 
Three  motor  attendants 
Twelve  labourers 

Average  60  working  hours  per  week. 

Yard  Grang 

One  ganger        .         .         .1 

Six  labourers     . 

One  locomotive  driver       .  V  Cost  per  ton  of  P.C.       .       1-31 

One  fireman 
One  switchman  . 

Average  60  working  hours  per  week. 

Storehouse,  etc. 

Cost  per  ton  of  P.C. 
d. 

Labour 0'35 

Building  and  repairs     .         .         .         .         .     0'50 

Permanent    way     ......     0*50 

Filling  and  loading       .  •       .         .         .         .     7*50 

Miscellaneous          .         .  ,    .         .         .     1*31 

10-16 

Laboratory 
Salaries       .         .         .         .     Cost  per  ton  of  P.C.       .       1'2 

Superintendence  and  Office 
Salaries       ....     Cost  per  ton  of  P.C.       .       4'65 


Total  .         .         .     37-00 

Supplies 

Cost  per  ton  of  P.C. 
9  d. 

Powder,  fuses,  etc 2'00 

Gypsum 3'00 

Oil  and  waste 1*50 

Coal  (at  14s.  per  ton) 84-00 

90-50 
Repairs  and  renewals 9'00 


COSTS    AND    STATISTICS  87 


Total  per  ton 

of  Cement      d. 
.  31-15 

Laboratory 
Superi  ntendence 
Supplies 

CEMENT 

and  office 
PRODUCTION 

AND 

.     1-2 
.     4-65 
.  99  50 

136-5    =11^ 
SHIPMENTS 

DURING   19141 

Figures  gathered  by  United  States  Geological  Survey  show 
decrease  in  both  quantity  and  value  of  output. 
PORTLAND  CEMENT  OUTPUT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1913  AND  1914,  BY 
DISTRICTS,  IN  BARRELS 


1914. 

.  1913  1914 

Lehigh  District  (Eastern  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey). 

Production  .     27,139,601      24,614,933  -   9-30 

Shipments  .     26,659,537      23,968,554  -10-09         -838         -809       -   3-46 

Stock      .     .       2,448,400        3,118,958  +27-39 

New  York  State. 

Production.       5,208,020        5,886,124  +13-02 

Shipments  .       5,136,334        5,474,191  +   6-58         -934         -917       -   1-82 

Stock      .     .          556,557  972,082  +74-66 

Ohio  and  Western  Pennsylvania. 

Production.       7,690,010        7,592,065  -1-27 

Shipments  .       7,287,028        7,466,887  +2-47      1-000         -876       -12-50 

Stock      .     .       1,031,892        1,132,140  +  9-71 

Michigan  and  North-  Eastern  Indiana. 

Production.       5,057,199        5,214,557  +3-11 

Shipments  .       4,960,891        5,157,613  +3-95      1-030         -960       -   6-80 

Stock      .     .          643,770  678,980  +5-47 

Southern  Indiana  and  Kentucky. 

Production.       3,005,417        2,930,735  -    2-48 

Shipments  .       2,861,624        2,932,003  +  2-46      1-008         -717       -28-87 

Stock      .     .          436,703  435,742  -      -22 

Illinois  and  North-Western  Indiana. 

Production.     12,423,799      11,532,605  -    7-17 

Shipments  .     11,576,938      11,316,645  -   2-25      1-002         -932       -    6-99 

Stock      .     .       1,924,367        2,135,023  +10-95          — 

Maryland,  Virginia,  and  West  Virginia. 

Production.       2,668,338        2,784,988  +4-37 

Shipments  .       2,529,629        2,793,036  +10-41         -865         -877       +1-27 

Stock      .     .          341,120  332,695  -   2-47 

Tennessee,  Alabama,  and  Georgia. 

Production.       3,082,623        2,672,210  -13-31 

Shipments  .       2,958,829        %577,099  -12-90         -899         -935       +3-89 

Stock      .     .          287,300  383,507  +33-48 

Iowa  and  Missouri. 

Production  .       8,427,012       8,957,613  +6-30 

Shipments  .       7,941,620        8,930,465  +12-45      1-074        -940       -11-45 

Stock      .     .       1,397,847        1,472,728  +5-35 

1  From  Rock   Products  and   Building  Materials,   June  7,  1915,  Chicago, 
111.,  U.S.A. 


88  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


-«. 

Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Central  Texas. 

$  8 

Production  .       6,350,646        6,253,731       -   1-53 

Shipments  .       6,190,040        6,016,774       -   2-80      1-063         -930       -12-51 
Stock      .     .          848,949        1,033,002       +21-68 
Rocky  Mountain  States  (Colorado,  Utah,  Montana,  Arizona,  and  Western 

Texas). 

Production  .       2,546,082        2,698,151       +5-97 

Shipments  .       2,545,473        2,754,591       +8-21      1-319      1-306       -      -99 
Stock      .     .          246,241  210,577       -14-48 

Pacific  Coast  States  (California  and  Washington). 

1-461      1-277       -12-66 


Production  . 

8,498,384 

7,092,458 

-16-54 

Shipments  . 

8,041,434 

7,050,098 

-12-33 

Stock      .     . 

1,057,182 

988,429 

-   6-50 

Total. 

Production  . 

92,097,131 

88,230,170 

-   4-20 

Shipments  . 

88,689,377 

86,437,956 

-   2-54 

Stock     '.     . 

11,220,328 

12,893,863 

+  14-92 

1-005         -927       -   7-76 
,863       +14-92  — 

One  barrel  =  380  Ib.  net. 

5-895  barrels  ='1   English  ton  (2,240  Ib.). 

For  1914— 

The  lowest  average  factory  price  per  barrel,  Southern  Indiana 
and  Kentucky  =  17s.  7d.  per  English  ton. 

The  highest  average  factory  price  per  barrel,  Rocky  Mountain 
States  =  32s.  2d.  per  English  ton. 

Average  factory  price  per  barrel  throughout  the  United  States 
=  approximately  23s.  per  English  ton. 

SYSTEMATIC  COST  KEEPING 

To  attain  high  efficiency  in  managing  a  Portland  Cement  plant 
unit  cost  records  and  reports  are  essential. 

Without  cost  keeping  no  enterprise  can  exist,  and  it  behoves 
cement  manufacturers  to  search  for  and  adopt  methods  which 
have  proved  efficient  and  successful . 

The  use  of  scientific  cost  keeiping  will  often  expose  a  weak 
spot  in  mill  operations  ;  it  also  stimulates  the  search  for  better 
methods  of  production  with  their  consequent  reduction  of  cost. 

The  history  of  all  industries  corroborates  the  fact  that  lowering 
the  cost  means  the  finding  of  a  larger  number  of  uses  for  the 
product. 

In  these  days  of  increase  in  the  values  of  labour  and  materials 
— and  the  prospect  is  that  they  will  continue  to  increase — it 
certainly  is  incumbent  on  those  who  utilize  these  two  elements  to 
be  satisfied  they  are  used  to  the  best  advantage  and  in  combina- 
tion have  lost  no  more  than  they  should. 

It  is  not  enough  for  a  manager  of  a  cement  plant  to  know 
that  he  is  producing  cement  at  a  certain  cost  ;  he  should  know 


COSTS    AND    STATISTICS  89 

whether  or  not  every  section  of  the  factory  is  being  carried  out 
on  a  paying  basis. 

By  a  weekly  analysis  of  wages  and  stores  a  manager  can 
determine  very  quickly  if  it  is  desirable  to  concentrate  his  efforts 
on  a  particular  section  of  the  factory. 

The  daily  reports  from  all  departments  is  the  starting-point 
of  cost  keeping  and  economical  production.  The  running  hours 
of  every  machine  are  daily  tabulated  and  their  efficiency  proved. 

The  moral  effect  on  the  men  themselves  in  recording  the  day's 
run  and  output  is  a  justification  of  keeping  records  ;  it  is  a 
natural  instinct  of  men  to  excel  in  their  undertakings,  and  in 
order  to  get  the  best  out  of  them  their  interest  in  their  work  must 
be  aroused,  and  they  must  be  impressed  with  a  sense  of  their 
responsibility,  and  there  is  no  better  way  of  creating  this  friendly 
competition  than  each  shift  recording  their  respective  records 
done  by  their  machines. 

There  is  no  man,  no  matter  how  lowly  he  may  be,  or  whatever 
may  be  the  nature  of  his  work,  whose  interest  cannot  be  aroused 
by  impressing  him  with  a  sense  of  his  responsibility,  and  showing 
him  wherein  the  competition  lies  in  connection  with  his  work. 

Therefore,  anything  that  can  be  done  to  arouse  the  interest 
of  the  men  in  their  work  and  bring  about  friendly  competition 
is  of  inestimable  value,  and  nothing  will  do  more  to  produce 
results  than  recording  on  the  daily  report  sheets  the  hours  their 
machine  has  been  running  and  quantity  of  material  turned  out. 

Sometimes  the  impression  prevails  that  the  necessary  job 
orders,  time-sheets,  daily  reports,  material  reports,  and  progress 
reports  which  the  foreman  has  to  deal  with  are  apt  to  confuse 
him,  and  consequently  decrease  rather  than  increase  the  efficiency 
of  his  work.  Experience  has  proven  otherwise  ;  they  tend  to 
develop  and  awaken  the  interest  of  the  foreman. 

He  realizes  that  he  is  an  important  factor  in  the  organization ; 
he  is  also  alive  to  the  fact  that  his  reports  will  be  checked  by 
the  final  weighing  of  the  cement  whilst  being  shipped.  This 
puts  him  on  his  mettle,  increases  his  attention  generally,  and 
his  value  as  a  superviser. 

Unit  cost  records  and  reports  are  invaluable  guides  in  the 
conduct  of  a  Portland  Cement  works,  and  must  not  be  under- 
estimated by  secretaries  or  managers  who  wish  to  carry  out  their 
work  in  an  efficient  and  economical  manner. 

The  wages  of  all  employees  are  analysed  and  allocated  to  each 
department  and  machine. 

Stores  are  dealt  with  in  a  similar  manner,  and  detection  of 
abnormal  demand  is  at  once  apparent. 

Comparative  cost-sheet  is  to  be  recommended,  which  gives 
at  a  glance  the  reason  of  an  increase  or  decrease  of  the  cost  per 
ton  of  cement  month  by  month. 


90 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


Daily   Report 

LIMESTONE    QUAEEY 


191 


Hours  on. 

Hours  off. 

Cause  of  Delay,  and  Remarks. 

Steam  navvy 
Limestone  loaded  . 
Limestone  to  crushers  . 
Limestone  to  store 
Steam  drill   . 
Depth  of  holes  drilled    . 

Tons. 

Hours  on. 

Hours  off. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Foreman 

To  BE  IN  MANAGER'S  OFFICE  BY  10  A.M. 

Daily   Report 

CEUSHING    DEPAETMENT 


191. 


Hours  on. 

Hours  off. 

Cause  of  Delay,  and  Remarks. 

Primary  crusher    . 
Secondary    ,, 
Crushing  rolls 
Eotary  screen 
Elevators 
Conveyors     . 
Limestone  from  quarry. 
,,           ,,     store    . 
Locomotive  crane  . 
Clay  washmill 

Attendant. 

Foreman.... 
To  BE  IN  MANAGER'S  OFFICE  BY  10  A.M. 


COSTS    AND    STATISTICS 


91 


Daily   Report 

CLAY  OK  SHALE  QUAKKY 


191 


Hours  on. 

Hours  off. 

Cause  of  Delay,  and  Remarks. 

Steam  navvy 
Clay  or  shale  loaded 
To  washmill 
To  store 

Tons. 

Foreman 
To  BE  IN  MANAGER'S  OFFICE  BY  10  A.M. 

Daily   Report 

WET    GEINDING    MILL 

Day  or  Night  Shift 


191. 


Hours  on. 

Hours  off. 

Fineness  of 
Finished 
Material. 

Cause  of  Delay,  and  Remarks. 

No.  1  ball  mill 

„    2 

,,    3 

• 

„    4 

,,    1  tube  mill 

,,    2 

»    3 

,,    4 

Conveyors 

Elevators 

Miller 

Foreman 
To  BE  IN  MANAGER'S  OFFICE  BY  10  A.M. 


92 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


Daily   Report 

SLURRY    STORAGE    DEPARTMENT 
Day  or  Night  Shift 191  __ 


Hours  on.  Hours  off. 

Stock  of 
Slurry. 

Cause  of  Delay,  and  Remarks. 

No. 
>  » 

1  mixer    . 
2      ,,       . 
3      „       . 
4      ,,       . 
1  slurry  pump 
2 
3 
4  clay  pump    . 
5 

i 

Clay  Mixture 

Pump  Attendant 

Foreman 

To  BE  IN  MANAGER'S  OFFICE  BY  10  A.M. 


COSTS    AND    STATISTICS 


93 


Daily   Report 

KOTAEY    KILN    DEPARTMENT 

Day  or  Night  Shift , 


1 91 


Hours  on. 

Hours  off. 

Cause  of  Delay,  and  Remarks. 

No.  1  kiln     . 
„   2    „       . 

„    3    „       . 
,,    1  cooler. 
,,    2    ,,        . 

,,    3    „        . 
Slurry  feed    . 
Elevators 
Conveyors     . 
Coal  feed  screws   . 

Tons. 

Cwt. 

GrScoal.       *»••      Cwt. 

Ground  coal  used 
Clinker  made 

No.  1  hopper 

M      2            ,, 

„    3       ,, 

Burner  __ 
Foreman 
To  BE  IN  MANAGER'S  OFFICE  BY  10  A.M. 


94 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


Daily   Report 

COAL    GRINDING    DEPAETMENT 
Day  or  Night  Shift 191..., 


Hours  on. 

Hours  off. 

Cause  of  Delay,  and  Remarks. 

No.  1  ball  mill       . 
,,    2                      . 
,,    3                      . 
,  ,    1  tube  mill 
,,    2                      . 
,,3        ,,             ... 
Elevators 
Conveyors     .         . 
Coal  dryer     . 
Coal  crusher 
Coal  on  stock 
Quantity  ground   . 

Tons. 

Cwt. 

Miller 

Foreman.. 
To  BE  IN  MANAGER'S  OFFICE  BY  10  A.M. 


COSTS    AND    STATISTICS 


95 


Daily   Report 

CEMENT    GKINDING    MILL 

Day  or  Night  Shift 


191 


Hrs.  on. 

Hrs.  off. 

Fineness  of 
Finished 
Cement. 

No.  of 
Silo  con- 
veyed to. 

Cause  of  Delay,  and 
Remarks. 

No.  1  ball  tube  mill 
„    2 
,,    3 
n    4 
,,    1  tube  mill 
2 

M        3 

„   4        „ 

Elevators 
Conveyors 
Quantity  ground     . 

Tons. 

Cwt. 

Miller. 

Foreman 
To  BE  IN  MANAGER'S  OFFICE  BY  10  A.M. 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


Daily    Report 

BOILEK  HOUSE 

Day  or  Night  Shift 


.191. 


Hours  on. 

Hours  off. 

Cause  of  Delay,  and  Remarks. 

No.  1  boiler  . 
„    2     „      . 
,,    3     „      . 
„   4    „      . 

„    6     „       . 

„    6     „      . 
Boiler  feed  pump,  No.  1 
,,      No.  2 
Economizer  . 
Elevators 
Coal  used 
Stock  of  coal  in  bunkers 

' 

Tons. 

Cwt. 

Stoker 

Engineer 

To  BE  IN  MANAGER'S  OFFICE  BY  10  A.M. 


COSTS    AND    STATISTICS 


97 


Daily    Report 

POWER-HOUSE 

Day  or  Night  Shift 


191 


Hours  on. 

Hours  off. 

Cause  of  Delay,  and  Remarks. 

No.  1  engine 
„   2      »              . 
,,    3      „              . 
,,4,,             . 
,,    1  condenser    . 
,2 

M        3             ,,                               . 

,,    4      ,,               . 
,  ,    1  circulating  pumps 
,,    2      ,, 
„    3      ,, 
„    4      ,, 



I 

'Attendant 

Engineer 

To  BE  IN  MANAGER'S  OFFICE  BY  10  A.M. 

Daily    Cooperage    Return 


.191 


Number. 

Order  No. 

Barrels  available  for  issue    
Sizes  and  description 
,,      manufactured  (previous  day)    . 
Sizes  and  description 
,,      in  progress  of  manufacture 
Sizes  and  description 

Foreman 
To  BE  IN  MANAGER'S  OFFICE  BY  10  A.M. 


98 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 
Daily    Sack    Return 

Date 191. 

Number 


Sacks  available  for  issues 


New 
Previously  used 

Total 


Sacks  repaired        .         .         .         .         . 
,,     to  be  repaired        .         . 
,,     dried,  cleaned,  and  sorted 
,,      found  useless        .... 
, ,     received  (previous  day) 
From  whom — 

A  .         .         .         .      %  . 

B 

C 

D 

Foreman 

To  BE  IN  MANAGER'S  OFFICE  BY  10  A.M. 

Daily    Report 

STEEL  DKUM  PLANT 


...191 


Number. 

Order  No. 

Sizes  and  description 

,,      manufactured  (previous  day)    . 

Sizes  and  description 

,,      in  progress  of  manufacture 

Sizes  and  description 

Foreman . 
To  BE  IN  MANAGER'S  OFFICE  BY  10  A.M. 


COSTS    AND    STATISTICS 


99 


Wages    Analysis    Sheets 

QUAKKY    LIMESTONE 

Week  ending 


.291. 


Names. 

Rolling 
Stock. 

Loco- 
motive. 

Steam 
Shovel. 

Drill. 

Coal. 

Explo- 
sives. 

TOTAL. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

W.  Smith 

2 

10 

0 

QUARKY    CLAY 


Names. 

Rolling 
Stock. 

Loco- 
motive. 

Steam 
Shovel. 

Drill. 

Coal. 

Explo- 
sives. 

TOTAL. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

RAW    GRINDING    MILLS 


Names. 

Crushers. 

Raw  Mill 
Silo. 

Ball  Tube 

Mills. 

Tube 
Mills. 

Eleva- 
tors. 

Motors. 

TOTAL. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

SLURRY    TANKS 


Names. 

Mixers. 

Pumps. 

Motors. 

TOTAL. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s: 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

100  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

COAL    GRINDING    MILLS 


Names. 

Ball 

Mills. 

Tube 
Mills. 

Eleva- 
tors. 

,     Con- 
veyors. 

Coal 
:    Driers. 

i 

Motors. 

TOTAL. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

J 

EOTARY    KILNS 


Names. 

Kilns. 

Coolers. 

Coal  Feeds. 

Slurry 
Feeds. 

Motors. 

TOTAL. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

i 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

CLINKER    GRINDING    MILLS 


Names. 

Ball  Tube 
Mills. 

Tube  Mills. 

Elevators. 

Conveyors. 

Motors. 

TOTAL. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

5. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

CEMENT    SILOS 


Names. 

Elevators. 

Conveyors. 

Filling  and 
Loading. 

Motors. 

1 
« 

DOTAL. 
S. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

d. 

COSTS    AND 

COOPEEAGE 


• 

Names. 

Cask- 
making. 

Staves. 

Machinery. 

Motors. 

TOTAL. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

STEEL    DEUMS 


Names. 

Making. 

Machinery. 

Motors. 

TOTAL. 

£ 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

SACK    STOEE 


Names. 

Checking. 

Drying. 

Cleaning. 

Mending. 

Machin- 
ery. 

Motors. 

TOTAL. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

PO  WEE-HOUSE 


Names. 

Boilers. 

Turbo- 
Generators. 

Switchboard. 

Pumps. 

TOTAL. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

f. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

10& 


PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


Names. 

Bull 
_P 

din 
S. 

gs. 

d. 

Per- 
manent 
Way. 

Loco- 
motive. 

Rolling 
Stock. 

Fire 
Goods. 

Light- 
ing. 

Water 
Supply. 

New 
Work. 

Stables. 

TOTA 

£ 

8. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

Names. 

Estate 
Repairs. 

Laboratory. 

General 
Office. 

General 
Charges. 

TOTAL. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

GRAND  TOTAL :  £ 


d. 


COSTS    AND    STATISTICS 


103 


Stores    Analysis    Sheet 


Department. 

Dates. 

Department 
Totals. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  1. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  8. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  15. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  22. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  29. 

• 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

Quarry  (limestone)  — 

Boiling  stock     .     .     . 

Locomotives 

Steam  shovel    .     .     . 

Coal 

Drilling   .     .     .     „     . 

Explosives   .     .     .     * 

Lubricants    .     .     «     . 

Quarry  (clay)  — 

Rolling  stock     .     .    .. 

Locomotive  .     .     .     . 

Steam  shovel    .     . 

Coal 

Drilling    

Explosives    .     .     .     * 

Lubricants    .... 

Rait)  grinding  mills  — 

Crushers  ..... 

Raw  material  store 

Grit  mills     .     .     .     .  ; 

Finishing  mills    „'     . 

Elevators      ...     . 

Conveyors    .     *     .     . 

Motors     .     .     .... 

Lubricants   .... 

Slurry  tanks  — 

Mixers     .     .....     . 

Pumps     

Motors     

Lubricants   .     .    V    . 

Coal  grinding  mills  — 

• 

Ball  mills     .... 

Tube  mills  .... 

Elevators      .... 

Conveyors     .... 

Coal  dryers  .... 

Motors     

Lubricants   .... 

Rotary  kilns  — 

Rotary  kilns      .     .     . 

Coolers    

Coal  feeds    .... 

Slurry  feeds  .... 

Motors     

Lubricants    .... 

Weekly  totals    .     . 

104 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


Stores    Analysis    Sheet    (continued) 


Department. 

Dates. 

Department 
Totals. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  1. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  8. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  15. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  22. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  29. 

£ 

s.  d 

£ 

d. 

£ 

s. 

£ 

8. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

i. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

Weekly  totals     .     . 

Clinker  grinding  mills  — 

Grit  mills     .... 

Finishing  mills.     .     . 

Elevators      .... 

Conveyors    .     .     .     . 

Motors     .     .     ... 

Lubricants    .     .     .  „  . 

Cement  warehouse  — 

Elevators     .     ... 

Conveyors    .... 

Filling  and  loading     . 

Motors     .     .     .     .     . 

Lubricants    .     .     .     . 

Cooperage  — 

Cask-making     .     .     . 

Staves      .     .     .     .     . 

Machines      .     .     .     . 

Motors     

Lubricants    .     .     .  ^. 

Steel  drums  — 

Making    .     .     .     .     . 

Machinery   .... 

Motors     .     .  •    *     .     . 

Lubricants    .     . 

Sack  store  — 

Checking      .     .     .     . 

Drying     .     r     . 

Cleaning       ^     .     .     . 

Mending  .     .     -.     .     . 

Machinery    „  '--.     .     . 

Motors     .     .     .     .  '  •« 

Lubricants    .     . 

Power-house  — 

Boilers     

Turbo-generators  . 

Switchboard      .     .     . 

Pumps     

Lubricants    .... 

Buildings   

Permanent  way    .     .     . 

Locomotives     .     .     .     . 

Weekly  totals     . 

COSTS    AND    STATISTICS 
Stores    Analysis     Sheet    (continued) 


105 


Department. 

Dates. 

Department 
Totals. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  1. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  8. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  15. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  22. 

Week 
ending 
Jan.  29. 

Weekly  totals     .     . 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

Rolling  stock   .... 

Fire  goods  

Lighting     

Water  supply  .... 

New  work   

Exceptional  repairs  . 
Stables  .          ... 

Estate  repairs  .... 

General  charges   . 

Coal  for  burning  .     .     . 

Coal  for  power      .     .     . 

Gypsum      

-— 

Weekly  totals     .     . 

Cost    Sheet 


Department. 

Month  

Month  

Department 
Totals. 

Labour. 

Supplies. 

Total. 

Labour. 

Supplies. 

Total. 

Quarry  (limestone)  — 
Eolling  stock     .     . 
Locomotives      .     .     . 
Steam  shovel    .     .     . 
Coal    .     .     . 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

Drilling   
Explosives    .... 
Lubricants    .... 

Quarry  (clay)— 
Rolling  stock     .     . 
Locomotives 
Steam  shovel     .     .     . 
Coal    . 

Drilling    
Explosives    .... 
Lubricants    .... 

Monthly  totals    . 

106  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

Cost    Sheet    (continued) 


Department. 

Month  

Month  

Department 
Totals. 

Labour. 

Supplies. 

Total. 

Labour. 

Supplies. 

Total. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

5. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

Monthly  totals   .     . 

Haw  grinding  mills  — 

Crushers  

Eaw  mill  silo    .     .     . 

Grit  mills     .... 

Finishing  mills      .     . 

Elevators      .... 

Conveyors    .... 

Motors     

Lubricants    .... 

Slurry  tanks  — 

Mixers     

Pumps     .     .     .     .     . 

Motors     

Lubricants    .... 

Coal  grinding  mills  — 

. 

Ball  mills     .... 

Tube  mills   .... 

Elevators      .... 

Conveyors    .... 

Coal  dryers  .... 

Motors     

Lubricants    .... 

Hotary  kilns  — 

Eotary  kilns      .     .     . 

Coolers    

Coal  feeds    .... 

Slurry  feeds      .     .     . 

Motors     

Lubricants    .... 

Clinker  grinding  mills  — 

Grit  mills     .... 

Finishing  mills      .     . 

Elevators      .... 

Conveyors    .... 

Motors     .     .     .     .     . 

Lubricants    .... 

Cement  warehouse  — 

Elevators     .     .     ... 

Conveyors    .... 

Filling  and  loading     . 

Motors     

Lubricants    .... 

Monthly  totals    .     . 

1 
1 

COSTS    AND    STATISTICS 
Cost    Sheet    (continued) 


107 


Department. 


Monthly  totals 

Cooperage — 
Cask-making     . 
Staves      .     .     . 
Machines 
Motors     .     . 
Lubricants    . 

Steel  drums — 
Making    .     .     . 
Machinery    . 
Motors     .     .     . 
Lubricants    . 

Sack  store — 
Checking       .     . 
Drying     .     .     . 
Cleaning . 
Mending .     .     . 
Machinery    .     . 
Motors     . 
Lubricants    . 

Power-house — 
Boilers     .     . 
Turbo-generators 
Switchboard 
Pumps     . 
Lubricants    .     . 

Buildings   . 
Permanent  way    . 
Locomotives     . 
Rolling  stock   .     . 
Fire  goods  .     .     . 
Lighting 

Water  supply  .     . 
New  work  .     .     . 
Exceptional  repairs 
Stables  .... 
Estate  repairs 
General  charges    . 


Monthly  totals 


Month 


Labour 


£    S.  d 


Supplies 


£  s   d 


Total. 


£  s.  d 


Month 


Labour 


£  s   d 


Supplies 


£  s.  d 


Total. 


Department 
Totals. 


£    5    d 


108  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

Cost     Sheet    (continued) 


Month  

Month  

Department. 

Department 
Totals. 

Labour. 

Supplies. 

Total. 

Labour. 

Supplies. 

Total. 

|£ 

S. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

£  s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

S. 

d. 

Monthly  totals 

Coal  for  burning  .     .     . 

Coal  for  power     .     .     . 

Gypsum      .     .  ,  .     ..    >,: 

A  d  ministrative  — 

a.  General  office    . 

b.  Laboratory  .     .     . 

Fixed  charges  — 

a.  Interest,     cost     of 

works  .... 

b.  Value   of  raw   ma- 

terial used 

c.  Insurance  and  taxes 

d.  Depreciation  of 

factory  and  ma- 

chinery 

e.  Sinking  fund     .     . 

/.  Koyalty  .... 

g.  Directors      .     .     . 

h.  Selling  charges 

Monthly  totals 

Cost  per  ton        .     .  ' 

I 

' 

CHAPTER  X 

EQUIPMENT 

MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SOME  MODERN  PORT- 
LAND CEMENT  PLANTS  ERECTED  DURING   THE 
LAST  FIVE  YEARS 

NO.    1   PLANT 
PROCESS  WET 

Material  :     Chalk   and    clay 
Weekly  Capacity  :    3,000    tons. 

Chalk    Quarry 
Steam  navvy  capacity  80  tons  per  hour. 

Clay  Quarry 

Steam  navvy  capacity  40  tons  per  hour— three  locomotive 
engines  and  6  cubic  yard  capacity  side-tipping-  cars.  Chalk  quarry 
1^  miles  from  the  washmill  ;  clay  quarry  half  a  mile  from  the 
washmill. 

Grinding  the  Raw  Materials 
Washmill   (coarse  gratings). 
Washmills  (fine  gratings). 
Two  tube  mills  (6  X  26  feet). 
Three  sets  of  three-throw  ram  pumps. 
Average  running  hours  65  per  week  full  capacity. 

Slurry  Storage  and  Mixing 

Three  circular  storage  tanks  66  feet  diameter  X  10  feet  deep. 
Three  sets  of  three-throw  ram  pumps. 

Rotary  Kilns  for  Burning 

Three  rotary  kilns  (9  feet  diameter  X  200  feet  long) . 
Three  rotary  coolers   (6  feet  diameter  X  80  feet  long). 
Average  running  time  50  full  weeks  per  year,  allowing  each 
kiln  off  two  weeks  during1  the  year  for  relining  in  firing  zone  and 
minor  ^repairs  and  adjustments. 

Coal  Crushing,  Drying,  and  Grinding 
One  crusher. 

One  dryer  (5  feet  diameter  X  60  feet  long). 
Eight  Griffin  mills. 
Average  running  time  120  hours  per  week. 


110 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


Grinding   the   Clinker 

Eight  ball  mills  (No.  8). 

Eight  tube  mills  (5  ft.  6-. in.  diameter  X  27  ft.  long). 

Average  running  time  120  hours  per  week.     , 

Cement  Storage 

Low  frame  buildings  divided  into  bins  by  timber  partitions. 
Capacity  15,000  tons.     Packing,  hand  labour. 

Cooperage 


Stave  Department 


Trussing  Department 


Four  multiple  stave  jointers. 

Four    stave    tonguing    and    grooving 

machines. 
Two     stave     chiming,     crozing,     and 

printing  machines. 
Two  80  ft.  stave  heating  stoves. 

I  Eight    adjustable    trussing    bells    for 
1          different  sizes  of  barrels. 

^Four  head  rounding  machines. 

Three  treadle  head  compressors. 
Heading  Department        -j  One   circular  saw. 

Two  tonguing,  grooving,  and  thicken- 
ing machines. 

Four  hoop  riveting  machines. 
Four  hoop  splaying  machines. 
Three    multiple    hoop    punching    and 
shearing  machines. 

/Two  accumulators. 
1  Four  sets  pumps. 


Iron  Department 


Hydraulic  Plant 


Machine  Shop 


fOne  circular  saw  sharpener. 
4  One       automatic       cutter       grinding 
machine. 


Power  required! :    70  to  80  horse-power. 
Average  running  hours  60  per  week.    Output  12,000  barrels. 

Sack  Department 

Sack  storage  capacity  for  200,000  sacks. 

One  sack-cleaning  machine. 

Drying  apparatus. 

Two  sewing  and  darning  machines. 


EQUIPMENT  1 L 1 

Power  Plant 

2,500  horse-power. 

Three    compound   engines. 

One  1,500  h.p. 

Two  5 00  h.p.  each. 
Eight  Lancashire  boilers. 

Sole. — The  apparent  large  boiler  capacity  is  due  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  works,  three  separate  power  plants  being 
laid  down,  each  having  one  engine,  viz.  : — 

One   500   h.p..    engine  for  raw  grinding  with  two   boilers. 
One  1,500  h.p.  engine  for  cement  grinding  with  four  boilers. 
One   500  h.p.    engine  for  kilns  and  auxiliary  machinery  with 
two  boilers. 


NO.   2  PLANT 
PROCESS  WET 

Materials  :    Argillaceous  limestone  and  shale. 
Weekly  Capacity  :    3,000  tons. 

Quarry 

(Limestone  and  shale  interstratified.) 
Steam  navvy  capacity  80  tons  per  hour. 

Churn  Drill 

Two  locomotive  engines. 

10  cubic  yard  capacity  side-tipping  cars. 

Quarry  800  yards  from  crushers. 
Average  running  time  70  hours  per  week. 

Crushing  the  Raw  Material 

One  rotary  screen  (extracting  excess  shale). 

One  jaw  crusher,   feed   opening  54  X  36  in. 

Two  No.   6  gyratory  crushers. 

Crushing  rolls. 

Average  running  time  70  hours  per  week. 

Drying,  Grinding,  and  Mixing  the  Raw  Material 

Three  rotary  dryers  (7  feet  diameter  X  80  feet  long). 
Twelve  40  in.  giant  Griffin  mills. 

Mixing  Mill 

Product  from  Griffin  mills  now  made  into  a  slurry. 
Average  running  time  120  hours  per  week. 


112  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

Slurry  Storing  and  Mixing 

Two  circular  tanks  66  feet  diameter  X  10  feet  deep  for  slurry. 
One  ditto  for  clay  mixture. 

Three  sets  of  three-throw  ram  pumps  (two  sets  for  slurry,  one  set 
for  clay  mixture). 

Rotary  Kilns  for  Burning 

Three  rotary  kilns  (10  feet  diameter  X  175  feet  long). 
Three  rotary  coolers  (7  feet  diameter  X  60  feet  long). 

Coal  Crushing,  Drying,  and  Grinding 
One  crusher. 

One  dryer  (5  feet  diameter  X  60  feet  long). 
Eight   30  in.    Griffin  mills. 
Average  running  time  120  hours  per  week. 

Grinding  the  Clinker 

Twelve  40  in.  giant  Griffin  mills. 

Average  running  time  120  hours  per  week. 

Cement  Storage 

Low  frame  buildings  divided  into  bins  by  timber  partitions. 
Capacity  10,000  tons.  Packing,  automatic  (Bates'  valve  bag 
system) . 

Bag  Department 

Storage  capacity  500,000  bags  (95  lb.). 
One  bag-cleaning  machine. 
Drying  apparatus. 
Two  sewing  and  darning  machines. 

Power  Plant 

Four  600  h.p.  water  tube  boilers. 
Two  2,000  kw.  Curtis  steam  turbines. 

Machine  Shop 
Smithy;    fitting  shop;    carpenter's  and  wheelwright's  shop. 

NO.  3  PLANT 

PROCESS  DRY 

Material  :    Limestone  and  clay. 
Weekly  Capacity  :    1,500  tons. 

Limestone  Quarry 

One   steam  shovel,    capacity   40   tons  per  hour. 
One  big  blast  hole  drill. 
Side  dump  cars,  capacity  6  tons. 
Locomotive  engine. 


EQUIPMENT  113 

Clay    Quarry 

Locomotive  crane  and  grab. 
Side  dump  cars. 
Locomotive  engine. 
Limestone  (for  preparatory  treatment)  : 

Ona   primary   crusher    (gyratory),    capacity    60    tons   per 

hour. 

One  rotary  screen  2  in.  mesh. 

One  secondary  crusher,  capacity  40  tons  per  hour. 
Crushing  rolls. 
Elevating   conveying  machinery. 

Drying  Department 

Rotary   dryer   for   limestone,    7    X    80  feet. 
One  rotary  dryer  for  clay,  6   X  60  feet. 

Grinding  and  Mixing 

One  disintegrator  for  clay. 

Eight  Fuller-Lehigh  mills  for  limestone. 

Richardson's  automatic  scales. 

Rotary  Kilns  Department 

Four  rotary  kilns,  7  ft.  6  in.   X   125  feet  long. 

Four  rotary  coolers,   5   feet  diameter  X  60  feet  long. 

Clinker   Grinding   Mill 

Eight  Fuller-Lehigh  mills. 

Elevating  and  conveying  machinery. 

Gypsum   crusher  with   elevator   to   hopper   over   clinker. 

Conveyor  with  automatic  feeder. 

Crude  Oil,  Storage  and  Pump  House 
Two  sets  of  three-throw  oil  pumps. 
Pipe    system    to    rotary    kilns,    dryers,    boilers,    etc.,    boilers 

for  raising  steam  to  heat  the  oil. 

Two  air  compressors,  working  pressure  80  Ib.  per  square  inch, 
for  atomizing  and  feeding  crude  oil  to  the  kilns,  dryers,  and 
boilers. 

Power 
Electrical   (supplied  by   an   outside   source). 

Bag  Department 
One  bag-cleaning  machine. 
One  drying  apparatus. 
One    sewing    and    darning    machine. 


114  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

NO.  4  PLANT 
(Provision  made  to  double  capacity.) 

PROCESS  WET 

Material  :     Limestone  and  clay. 
Weekly  Capacity  :     1,200  tons. 

Limestone  Quarry 

Steam  shovel,  capacity  80  tons  per  hour. 
Big  blast  hole  drill. 
Side  dump  cars. 
Locomotive  engine. 

Clay  Quarry 

Steam  shovel. 

Side  dump  cars. 

Locomotive  engine. 
Limestone  (for  preparatory  treatment)  : 

One  primary  crusher. 

One  secondary  crusher. 

Crushing  rolls  (fin.  mesh). 
Clay  (for  preparatory  treatment)  : 
;  Washmill. 

Pumps. 

Eaw  Material  Store  for  Limestone  and  Clay 
Locomotive  crane  and  crab. 

Eaw  Grinding  Mill 

Two  kominuters  (8  feet  diameter  X  8  feet  long). 
Two  tube  mills  (6  feet  diameter  X  22  feet  long). 
Two  slurry  pumps. 

Mixing  and  Storage  Tanks 

Two  tanks  (66  feet  diameter  X  10  feet  deep),  for  finished  slurry. 
One   tank  for   clay  mixture. 
Two  slurry  pumps  (to  supply  rotary  kiln). 
Two  pumps  for  clay  water  (to  supply  kominuters). 

Eotary  Kiln  Department 

One  rotary  kiln  (9  feet  diameter  X  220  feet  long) . 
One  cooler  (6  feet  diameter  X  80  feet  long). 
Clinker  elevating  and  conveying  machinery. 

Clinker  Grinding  Mill 

Two  kominuters  (8  feet  diameter  X  8  feet  long). 
Two  tube  mills  (6  feet  diameter  X  22  feet  long). 
Elevating  and  conveying  machinery. 


EQUIPMENT  115 

Gypsum  Store 

One  crusher  capacity,  5  tons  per  hour. 
Elevating  and  conveying  machinery. 
Automatic  feeder  to  clinker  with  positive  regulator. 

Cement  Storage 
Capacity  12,000  tons. 

Sack  Department 
One  dryer. 

One  cleaning  machine. 
Two  sewing  and  darning  machines. 
Storage  capacity  500,000  sacks,  95  Ib.  capacity. 

Crude  Oil  Storage  and  Pump  House 
Storage  tank,  15,000  barrels  of  crude  oil. 
Two  sets  of  three -throw  oil  pumps. 
Pipe  system  to  rotary  kilns,  boilers. 

Two  air  compressors.     Working  pressure  80  Ib.  per  square  inch 
for  rotary  kilns  and  boiler  feeds. 

Power  Plant 

Diesel  engine-power  plant  directly  connected  to  generators. 
Two   750  b.h.p.   engines. 


NO.  5  PLANT 

PROCESS  WET 

Material  :     Argillaceous  limestone  and  shale  (interstratified) . 
Weekly  Capacity  :     1,200  tons. 

Quarry 

Steam  Navvy  Capacity  :    60  tons  per  hour. 
One  locomotive  engine. 
Eight   yard   side-tipping    cars. 
Average  running  hours  50  per  weak,  full  capacity. 

Crushing  Raw  Material 
Tippler. 
Automatic  feeding  apparatus  screening  the  excess  shale  during 

its  passage  to  the  crusher. 
One  jaw  crusher,  capacity  60  tons  per  hour. 
Crushing  rolls:  capacity  60  tons  per  hour. 
Raw  material  storage,  5,000  tons  capacity. 
Well-arranged  system  of  belt  elevating  and  conveying  machinery, 

avoiding  manual  labour. 

Average  running  hours  50  per  week,  full  capacity. 


116  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

Grinding   the  Raw   Materials 

Two  combined  ball  and  tube  mills  (solo  mill). 
Two  sets  of  three-throw  ram  pumps. 
Average  running-  hours   120  per  week,  full  capacity. 

Slurry  Storage  and  Mixing 

Two  circular  storage  tanks  (66  feet  diameter  X  10  feet  deep). 
Two  sets  of  three-throw  ram  pumps. 

Rotary  Kiln  and  Coolers 

One  rotary  kiln  (9  feet  diameter  X  200  feet  long) . 
One  cooler  (6  feet  diameter  X  80  feet  long). 
One  set  coal  feed  screws. 
One  fan  supplying  coal  dust  to  kiln. 

Average  running  time  50  full  weeks  per  year,  allowing 
kiln  off  two  weeks  during  the  year  for  relining  in  firing  zone 
and  minor  repairs  and  adjustments. 

Clinker  Store  (Covered) 
Capacity  5,000  tons. 
Well-arranged  system  of  automatic  handling. 

Coal  Crushing,  Drying,  and  Grinding 
•One  crusher. 

One  dryer  .(5  feet  diameter  X  60  feet  long). 
One  compound  ball  and  tube  mill. 
Average  running  time  120  hours  per  week. 

Grinding  the  Clinker 

Two  combined  ball  and  tube  mill?. 

Average  running  time  120  hours  per  week. 

Cement  Storage 

Low  frame  buildings,  divided  into  bins  by  timber  partitions. 
Capacity  5,000  tons.     Packing,  automatic. 

Cooperage 

Output  6,000  barrels. 
Average  running  hours  60  per  week. 

Power  Plant 

Machinery  electrically  driven. 
Two  slow-speed,  drop-valve,  horizontal  steam-engines  with  fly- 

•wheel  generators  on   crankshaft,    each    500    kw.    capacity  ; 

total  power  1,000  kw.,  or  1,600  i.h.p. 
Four   Lancashire  boilers   (8ft.   6  in.   diameter  X  30  feet  long). 


PHYSICAL    TESTING 

CHAPTER  XI 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    CEMENT    TESTING 

IT  is  not  sufficiently  realized  that  cement  testing-  is  a  highly 
skilled  work,  requiring-  a  great  deal  of  experience  before  one 
can  manipulate  the  materials  so  as  to  obtain  even  approximate 
results,  and  no  amount  of  experience  can  eliminate  the  variations 
introduced  by  the  personal  equation  which  enters  into  it  so 
largely  that  it  is  virtually  impossible  to  obtain  tests,  made  by 
two  or  more  persons,  even  under  practically  identical  conditions, 
which  would  show  the  same  results. 

In  the  more  important  tests,  where  the  cement  powder  is 
made  into  a  paste,  changing  completely  the  physical  and 
chemical  properties  of  the  material,  very  great  care  is  necessary 
to  produce  true  results. 

It  is  hoped  these  few  notes  will  be  of  some  assistance  to 
those  making  occasional  tests  who  would  avoid  annoyance  and 
disappointment. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  CEMENT  TESTING 

Smeatorfs. — In  1756  Mr.  John  Smeaton's  first  tests  were  made 
by  forming  small  balls  of  the  material,  placing  them  under  water, 
and  observing  their  hydraulic  properties. 

In  1830  Major-General  Sir  C.  W.  Pasley,  R.E.,  Lecturer 
on  Architecture,  etc.,  at  the  Military  School  of  Engineering, 
Chatham,  became  interested  in  cement  manufacture,  and  conducted 
a  c"rude  strength  test  by  cementing  bricks  against  a  wall,  one  at 
a  time,  the  second  being  cemented  to  the  first,  and  so  on,  the 
bricks  forming  a  projecting  beam,  and  the  cement  holding  the 
greatest  number  of  bricks  being  adjudged  the  superior. 

General  Pasley's  next  test  was  more  scientific  in  its  character, 
and  consisted  in  cementing  together  two  bricks  on  end  and 
determining  the  weight  necessary  to  pull  them  apart.  This 
appears  to  have  been  the  origin  of  the  tensile  strength  test. 

Vicat,  in  1828,  devised  an  apparatus  for  determining  the 
hardening  of  cement.  A  modification  of  this  apparatus,  known 
as  the  Vicat  needle,  is  the  present  standard  for  testing  the  time 
of  setting. 

In  1858  the  late  Mr.  John  Grant,  C.E.,  when  making  tests 
of  cement  in  connexion  with  the  construction  of  the  London 


118  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

main  drainage  works,  was  the  first  to  put  them  upon  a  scientific 
basis  ;  at  this  time  he  was  the  recognized  authority  on  cement. 

In  1877  the  representatives  of  the  German  cement  industry 
formed  an  association  of  cement  manufacturers  to  further  all 
interests  of  the  Portland  Cement  industry,  and  contributing  by 
scientific  work  to  the  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  Portland 
Cement.  Great  progress  resulted  for  the  cement  industry,  as 
the  users  of  cement  were  thereby  enabled  to  test  and  work  the 
cement  in  a  proper  manner,  and  to  judge  the  quality  correctly. 

Mr.  J.  P.  Griffith,  C.E.,  in  1889  and  1893,  read  papers 
to  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  of  Ireland,  advocating- 
standard  tests  of  cement.1  This  advocacy  probably  found  fruition 
in  the  British  Standard  Specification  for  Portland  Cement. 

In  1904  the  first  publication  took  place  of  the  British  Standard 
Specification  for  Portland  Cement,  through  the  initiative  of 
Sir  John  Wolfe  Barry,  and  with  the  able  co-operation  of 
Sir  William  Mathews  and  other  members  of  the  Institution 
of  Civil  Engineers  and  of  various  other  Engineering  Societies.2 

In  1903  and  1904  special  committees  were  appointed  by  the 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  the  American  Railway 
Engineering  and  Maintenance  of  Way  Association,  and  the 
Association  of  American  Portland  Cement  Manufacturers,  for  the 
purpose  of  investigating  current  practice  and  providing  definite 
Information  concerning  the  properties  of  concrete  and  reinforced 
concrete,  which  included  the  testing  of  Portland  Cement. 

This  scientific  system  of  standardization  has  wrought  a  great 
improvement  in  the  quality  of  Portland  Cement  manufactured 
throughout  the  world. 

GENERAL  NOTES  ON  GAUGING  CEMENT 

In  carrying  out  tests  for  tensile  (neat  and  sand)  setting  time 
and  soundness,  the  sample  submitted  must  be  spread  out  to  a 
depth  of  3  inches  for  twenty-four  hours  in  a  temperature  of 
from  58°  to  64°  F. 3 

Fresh  water  must  be  used  for  gauging.  Various  automatic 
mixing  machines  are  on  the  market,  but  the  gauging  of  test 
specimens  can  be  satisfactorily  accomplished  by  hand  after 
adequate  practice. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  that  cement  when  gauged  is  not 
placed  on  wood  or  other  absorbent  material,  as  this  will  abstract 
the  water  necessary  for  crystallization. 

1  Trans.  Inst.  C.E.  Ireland,  vol.  xx,  p.  26,  and  vol.  xxii,  p.  98. 

2  This  was  followed  by  a  second  revision  issued  in  August,  1910,  and  a  third 
revision  in  March,  1915. 

3  The  temperatures  stated  are  applicable  to  temperate  climates.     In  other 
climates  special  arrangements  between  vendor  and  purchaser  must  be  made, 
unless  the  temperature   therein  stated   can   be    artificially  obtained   in    the 
laboratory  or  other  place  where  the  tests  are  made. 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    CEMENT    TEST  IN  a 


119 


All  gauging  should  be  done  on  a  slab  of  marble,  slate,  or 
other  non-absorbent  material. 

See  that  the  apparatus  and  tools  used  are  thoroughly  clean 
before  gauging  is  begun. 

The  use  of  the  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  is 
recommended  as  being  more  convenient,  and  on  p.  122  will 
be  found  a  comparative  table  giving  English  weights  and 
measures  with  metric  equivalents. 

One  cubic  centimetre  of  water  is  equivalent  to  one  gramme 
of  cement. 

To  add  the  water  to  the  cement,  form  a  crater  in  the  top 
of  the  heap  on  the  slab  and  pour  the  water  therein — the  crater 
edges  can  then  be  tipped  in  with  the  trowel,  and  the  cementi 
will  rapidly  absorb  the  water. 

The  temperature  of  the  air  in  the  room  where  the  tests  are 
being  made  should  be  kept  between  58°  and  64°  F.  In  order 
to  check  this  an  ordinary  Fahrenheit  thermometer  should  be 
placed  on  the  bench  or  wall. 

The  quantities  of  cement  and  sand  should  always  be  taken 
by  weight  and  not  by  measure. 

The  gauging  must  be  completed  before  the  initial  set  takes 
place.  This  point  should  be  specially  watched  when  a  quick- 
setting  cement  is  under  test. 

The  method  generally  adopted  is  without  doubt  convenient 
for  practical  testing,  but  as  a  matter  of  interest  the  following 
table  is  given,  showing  the  true  percentages  for  different 
quantities  of  added  water  :  — 


Cubic  centimetres  of  water,  added 

to  100  grammes  cement  or  cement 

and  aggregate. 


7 
8 
9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 


Actual  percentage  of  water  in  total 

bulk  of  cement  or  concrete  when 

gauged. 


6-54 
7-41 

8-26 
9-09 
9-91 
10-71 
11-50 
12-28 
13-04 
13-79 
14  •  53 
15-25 
15-97 
16-67 
17-36 
18-03 
18-70 
19-35 


120  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

The  usual  method  of  expressing  the  percentages  of  gauging 
water  used  is  not  strictly  accurate  ;  for  instance,  to  100  grammes 
of  cement  is  added,  say,  20  c.c.  of  water.  This  is  expressed  as 
"20  per  cent  of  water".  It  will  be  seen,  however,  that  of  the 
total  mixture  of  120  parts  only  20  parts  are  water,  i.e.  16*67 
per  cent. 

TESTS  OF  CEMENT  REQUIRED  FOR  IMMEDIATE  USE 

Questions  are  often  asked'  as  to  how  an  engineer  or  clerk 
of  works  can  quickly  form  a  fairly  accurate  opinion  as  to  the 
quality  of  cement  required  for  immediate  use.  The  answer  is, 
that  particular  attention  should  be  given  to  three  points  : — 

1.  Immediately   on   receipt   of   the   cement  on   the   work   it 
should    be    tested    for    fineness  ;    this    is    purely    a    mechanical 
operation,  and  the  information  on  this  poinit  can  be  obtained 
in  a  fe'w  minutes. 

2.  It  should  then  be  tested  for  setting  time,  following  the 
lines  described  on  pp.  139  seqq.  to  obtain  accurate  information  as 
to  the  period  of  time  in  which  the  cement  deliver3d  to  the  works 
would  set. 

3.  One  or  more  pats  should  be  submitted,  twenty-four  hours 
after  being  made,  to  a  hot-water  test,  being  first  placed  in  any 
convenient  receptacle  in  cold  water,  after  which  the  water  should 
be  gradually  brought  up  to  a  temperature  of  180°  F.  or  there- 
abouts land  maintained  lat  that  temperature  for  three  or  four  hours. 

If  the  cement  prove  sound  under  these  conditions  it  would 
be  sure  to  give  reliable  results  in  the  work.  These  three  points 
being  established,  special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  quality 
and  condition  of  the  material  which  would  be  mixed  with  the 
cement,  as  it  frequently  happens  that  faulty  work  is  due  rather 
to  the  aggregate  than  to  the  cement.  Although  somewhat  of  a 
departure  from  the  subject,  the  fact  should  be  emphasized  that 
the  cement  is  only  one  of  several  materials,  and  forms  only  a 
small  proportion  of  the  finished  product,  and  the  durability  and 
strength  of  the  concrete  depends,  not  on  the  cement  alone,  but 
on  the  character  of  the  aggregate,  the  proportioning  of  the  same, 
and  the  workmanship  in  mixing  and  placing  the  material. 

In  cases  where  it  is  impossible  for  any  reason  to  carry  out 
these  tests  in  a  proper  and  systematic  manner  (or  where  the 
usual  appliances  for  testing  are  not  available),  they  may  be 
mado  in  a  rough  and  ready  manner,  as  follows  : — 

The  fineness  of  the  cement  may  be  judged  by  rubbing  a 
pinch  of  it  between  the  thumb  and  finger,  and  a  too  coarsely 
ground  cement  will  in  this  way  easily  be  detected. 

The  setting  time  may  be  noted  by  pressing  the  thumb-nail 
on  a  pat,  when  it  will  easily  be  seen  whether  the  cement  is 
quick  or  slow  setting  in  relation  to  what  is  required  for  the 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    CEMENT    TESTING 


121 


special  work  in  hand.     The  cement  may  be  considered  set  when 
hard  pressure  with  the  thumb-nail  makes  only  a  slight  impression. 

COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  ENGLISH  WITH  METRICAL  STRESSES 


Kilos  per  sq.  cm. 

lb.  per  sq.  in. 

Tons  per  sq.  ft. 

0-07  equals 

1  or 

0-06 

0-14 

2  „ 

0-13 

0-21 

3  ,, 

0-19 

0-28 

4  ,, 

0-26 

0-35 

5  ,, 

0-32 

0-42 

6  ,, 

0-39 

0-49 

7  ,, 

0-45 

0-56 

8  ,, 

0-51 

0-63 

9  ,, 

.       0-58 

0-70 

10  ,, 

0-64 

1-41 

20  „ 

1-29 

2-11 

30  ,, 

1-93 

2-81 

40  „ 

2-57 

3-52 

50  ,, 

3-21 

4-22 

60  „ 

3-86 

4-92 

70  „ 

4-50 

5-62 

80  ,, 

5-14 

6-33 

90  ,, 

5-79 

7-03 

100  ,, 

6-43 

14-06 

900  ,, 

12-86 

21-10 

300  ,, 

19-29 

28-13 

400  ,, 

25-71 

35-16 

500  ,, 

32-14 

42-19 

600  ,, 

38-57 

49-23 

700  ,, 

45-00 

56-26 

800    , 

51-43 

63-29 

900    , 

57-86 

70-32 

1,000    , 

64-29 

140-65 

2,000    , 

128-57 

210-97 

3,000    , 

192-86 

281-29 

4,000    , 

257-14 

351-62 

5,000    , 

321-43 

421-94 

6,000    , 

385-71 

492-26 

7,000    , 

450-00 

562-59 

8,000    , 

*          514-29 

632-91 

9,000    , 

578-57 

703-23 

10,000    , 

642-86 

When  hard  set,  let  the  pat,  together  with  the  piece  of  material 
upon  which  it  was  gauged,  be  placed  in  a  saucepan  (preferably 
enamelled)  in  cold  water,  which  should  be  brought  slowly  to  a 
temperature  a  little  below  boiling,  say  180°  F.  or  thereabouts, 
at  which  it  should  be  kept  for  three  or  four  hours.  If  the 
cement  be  sound  in  these  conditions,  it  may  safely  be  used  at 
once,  and  will  give  reliable  results  in  the  work. 


122  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  ENGLISH  AND  METRIC  MEASURES 

Inches  and  Decimals 
of  an  inch. 

1    millimetre          ..        .          .         .  0-039370 

1    centimetre         ....  0*393704 

1  decimetre            ....  3'937043 

1  metre 39-370432 

COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  ENGLISH  AND  METRIC  WEIGHTS 

English  Pounds. 

1  milligram           ....  0*0000022 

1  centigram           ....  0*0000220 

1   decigram            ....  0-0002204 

1  gram 0-0022046 

1  decagram            ....  C'0223462 

1  hectogram           ....  0-2204621 

1  kilogram 2-2046212 


CHAPTER  XII 
CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION 

BRITISH  STANDARD  SPECIFICATION 
Summary 

Not  to  exceed 

Insoluble  residue  .       I'o  per  cent 

Magnesia      .....       3  ,, 

Total  sulphuric  anhydride   (SO3)       2'75       ,, 
Total  loss  on  ignition          .         .3  ,, 

Lime  :  the  proportion  of  lime  to  silica  and  alumina  shall  not 
be  greater  than  the  maximum  nor  less  than  the  minimum 
ratio  (calculated  in  chemical  equivalents)  represented  by 

L_  =  2.85or  2-o  respectively.     ' 


No  attempt  to  determine  the  composition  of  Portland  Cemont 
should  be  made  by  any  one  not  qualified  in  analytical  chemistry. 
The  layman  may,  however,  determine  the  proportion  of  lime  to 
silica  and  alumina  in  any  given  analysis  of  cement  by  means  of 
the  formula  in  the  British  Standard  Specification,  which  is 
calculated  as  follows  :  — 

In  case  of  cement  containing  63'28  per  cent  of  lime,  21*6  por 
cent  of  silica,  and  8*16  per  cent  of  alumina,  the  proportion  of 
lime  to  silica  and  alumina  would  be  as  follows  :  — 

Molecular  weight  of  lime         =    56 
,,  ,,  silica        =    60 

,,  ,,  alumina  =  102 

Lime  (C.0)=  ^^  =  1'13 
So 

01  '(\ 

' 


Silica  (Si  02)  = 
Alu 

V* 


8'lfi 
Alumina  (A12  03)  =  —  ^  =  0*08 


_    O-j-rr  1 

- 


It  should  be  notea  here  that  in  cases  where  the  actual  per- 
centage of  lime  is  fixed  by  specification  irrespective  of  the  silica 
and  alumina  contents,  the  amount  found  on  analysis  should  always 
be  considered  in  conjunction  with  the  quantity  of  matter  volatile 

1  Which  is  less  than  2-85  and  more  than  2-0,  and  is  therefore  satisfactory. 


124  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

on  ignition,  i.e.  the  water  and  carbonic  anhydride.  Otherwise 
an  erroneous  opinion  may  be  formed  as  to  the  quality  of  the 
cement,  causing-  loss  to  the  manufacturer  as  well  as  annoyance 
to  the  engineer  and  the  consumer  by  groundless  rejection  of  the 
cement. 

For  example,  a  manufacturer  prepares  cement  to  a  specifica- 
tion which  fixes  the  lime  between  the  maximum  and  minimum 
limits  of,  say,  62  and  60  per  cent.  Delay  takes  place  in  the 
sampling,  or  the  sample  drawn  gets  carelessly  exposed  to 
atmospheric  influence  before  the  analysis  is  made,  with  the  result 
that  moisture  is  absorbed  and,  the  loss  on  ignition  being  increased, 
the  percentages  of  the  other  ingredients  are  proportionately 
reduced,  and  the  lime  present  in  the  aerated  sample  is  found  to 
be  only  59*59  per  cent. 

The  cement  is  consequently  rejected  as  being  below  the 
minimum  allowed,  namely,  60  per  cent.  This  example  of  what 
has  often  happened  in  practice  shows  that  in  cases  in  which 
an  analysis  is  specified  the  sample  should  be  taken  as  soon  as 
possible  'after  the  cement  reaches  the  consumer,  and  be  placed 
immediately  in  a  hermetically  sealed  receptacle,  such  as  a  glass- 
stoppered  bottle  or  airtight  tin,  and  thus  kept  free  from  exposure 
to  the  atmosphere  until  the  analysis  is  made. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY 

The  specific  gravity  test  for  cement  was  introduced  to  super- 
sede the  old  "  weight  per  bushel  "  test  as  a  means  of  determining- 
whether  or  not  the  cement  had  been  thoroughly  burnt,  it  being 
held  that  a  well-burnt  cement  would  give  a  higher  specific  gravity 
than  a  lightly  burnt  one. 

This  theory  has  been  proven  to  be  erroneous,  it  having  been 
found  that  the  result  of  the  test  depends  more  upon  the  degree 
to  which  the  cement  has  been  aerated.  Inasmuch,  however,  as 
the  specific  gravity  of  cement,  adulterated  with  various  additions 
—e.g.  slag  and  the  so-called  "  natural  "  cements — is  less  than 
that  of  genuine  Portland  Cement,  this  test,  in  conjunction  with 
the  chemical  analysis,  serves  as  a  check  on  the  purity  and  genuine- 
ness of  the  material. 

TEST  OF  LITTLE  VALUE  ALONE  * 

While  a  minimum  specific  gravity  clause  is  a  feature  of  every 
specification  for  Portland  Cement,  there  is  probably  no  test  which, 
taken  by  itself,  might  lead  to  more  faulty  conclusions.  The  test 
of  itself  is  designed  to  detect  uriderburning  and  adulteration. 
Unfortunately  for  any  conclusions  as  to  the  latter  we  might  draw, 
low  specific  gravity  is  often,  and  indeed  is  usually,  caused  by 
"  ageing  "  of  the  cement,  so  that  to  reject  a  cement  because  of  a 
1  Professor  Kichard  K.  Meade,  Portland  Cement. 


CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION 


125 


low  specific  gravity  may  be  to  reject  it  because  it  has  been  well 
seasoned.  It  is  now  generally  considered  that  cement  is  greatly 
improved  by  seasoning,  as  the  water  and  carbon  dioxide  of  the 
air  react  with  any  free  or  loosely  combined  lime  in  the  cement, 
which  might  otherwise  cause  the  latter  to  be  unsound.  As  the 
cement  absorbs  these  constituents  from  the  air  its  specific  gravity 
becomes  less  and  less.  This  is  as  it  should  be,  since  the  specific 
gravity  of  calcium  carbonate  is  only  2' 70,  and  that  of  calcium 
hydrate  only  2'08,  and  these  are  the  two  compounds  probably 
formed  during  seasoning. 

If  a  sample  which  has  been  kept  for  some  time  is  dried  at 
100°  C.,  its  specific  gravity  will  be  found  to  be  higher  than  it 
was  in  the  undried  condition,  but  still  not  as  high  as  when  it 
was  freshly  made.  If  this  sample  be  subjected  to  a  strong 
ignition  in  a  platinum  crucible  over  a  good  blast  lamp  its  specific 
gravity  will  still  further  increase,  and  may  even  be  more  than 
the  original  specific  gravity  of  the  freshly  made  cement,  in  the 
case  where  the  latter  has  been  poorly  burned.  The  following 
specific  gravities,  determined  at  different  times,  of  a  number  of 
Portland  Cements,  illustrate  the  above  facts  :  — 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

Sample  No. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

When  made   .... 

3-19 

3-21 

3-16 

3-15 

3-20 

After  28  days,  undried    . 

3-11 

3-12 

3-10 

3-09 

3-08 

dried  at  1  00°  C. 

3-16 

3-18 

3-14 

3-12 

3-14 

,,     6  months,  undried 

3-08 

3-04 

3-08 

3-03 

3-04 

dried  at  100°  C. 

3-13 

3-09 

3-12 

3-09 

3-09 

,,           ,,    ^  ignited     . 

3-18 

3-21 

3-18 

3-15 

3-19 

Reference  to  the  above  table  shows  that  samples  2,  4,  and  5 
would  have  failed  to  come  up  to  the  standard  specific  gravity 
specification  after  six  months,  and  yet  briquettes  made  of  the 
samples  at  the  same  time  the  specific  gravity  determinations  were 
made  showed  the  cement  to  be  at  its  best  after  storage  for  that 
length  of  time. 

If  the  specific  gravity  of  cement  is  not  lowered  by  storage 
no  seasoning  has  taken  place,  and  consequently  no  benefits  have 
been  derived  by  the  cement  from  ageing.  Determinations  of 
specific  gravity  made  both  on  the  undried  and  dried  samples 
of  cement  may  give  us  an  insight  into  the  amount  of  seasoning* 
the  cement  has  had.  If  the  two  results'  agree  closely  it  is 
probable  that  the  cement  is  fresh,  but  if  these  results  vary  by 
O05  or  more  we  may  assume  that  the  cement  has  been  in  the 
storage  for  a  few  weeks  at  least. 


126  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

The  specific  gravity  determination  is  of  little  value  in 
determining  whether  cement  has  been  underburnt  or  not.  Tho 
experienced  cement  chemist  at  the  mill  can  see  at  a  glance  by 
looking  at  the  clinker  if  it  is  underburned,  and  the  engineer 
or  inspector  can  judge  better  by  the  test  for  soundness.  It  is 
also,  for  the  reasons  given  above,  no  indication  of  adulteration. 

BRITISH  STANDARD  SPECIFICATION 

Summary 

When  presented  by  the  manufacturer  for  testing,  cement  shall 
not  be  less  than  3*10. 

The  specific  gravity  of  a  substance  denotes  the  ratio  of  Iho 
weight  of  any  volume  of  that  substance  to  an  equal  volume  of 
pure  water. 

Since,  in  the  metric  system,  the  cubic  centimetre  is  taken 
as  the  base  of  the  gramme  weight,  it  follows  that  the  specific 
gravity  of  a  substance  becomes  the  ratio  of  its  weight  in  grammes 
to  its  volume  in  cubic  centimetres. 

Many  forms  of  apparatus  have  been  devised  for  making  tests 
of  the  actual  specific  gravity,  all  of  which  are  based  on  the 
principle  of  measuring  the  amount  of  liquid  displaced  by  a  definite 
weight  of  material. 

Procedure 

The  determination  must  be  made  with  the  very  greatest  care 
and  accuracy,  and  experience  with  various  types  of  "  flask  "  has 
shown  the  "  Schumann "  to  be  one  of  the  simplest  and  most 
suitable  for  the  use  of  those  who  are  only  called  upon  to  make 
a  test  occasionally.  The  bottle  is  filled  with  paraffin  or  turpen- 
tine to  the  zero  mark  on  the  graduated  tube  (or  slightly  above 
it)  and  stood  in  cold  water,  the  temperature  of  which  is  noted 
and  must  remain  constant  for  thirty  minutes. 

The  height  of  the  paraffin  is  then  read  off  and  noted  ;  fifty 
grammes  of  cement  are  introduced,  a  little  at  a  time.  Any 
adhering-  to  the  sides  of  the  tube  must  be  washed  down  by 
carefully  shaking  up  some  of  the  paraffin.  After  removing  air 
bubbles  by  gently  knocking  the  bottle  on  a  rubber  or  cloth  pad, 
the  apparatus  is  again  set  aside  in  the  cold  water  to  bring  the 
temperature  to  the  same  degree  as  when  the  first  reading  was 
taken  ;  and  the  level  of  the  liquid  is  again  noted. 

The  specific  gravity  is  then  obtained  from  the  formula — 

Weight  of  cement 

bpecmc  gravity  —  7 —       — : ; — 

Increase  in  volume 

The  three  points  to  be  specially  noted  are  :  — 
1.  The  paraffin  used  must  be  dry.     This  can  be  secured  by 
shaking  up  and  standing  over  calcium  chloride  for  a  short  time. 


CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION 


127 


2.  The  temperature  of  the  apparatus  must  be  the  same  after 
each  reading. 

3.  All  air  bubbles  must  be  removed  by  tapping  as  described. 


40  CM. 


Schumann's  Apparatus  for  Specific  Gravity. 


The  following  table  gives  the  equivalent  specific  gravity  for 
various  increases  in  volume  : — 


Increase  in  volume 

Specific 

Increase  in  volume 

Specific 

(50  grammes  cement). 

gravity. 

(50  grammes  cement). 

gravity. 

15       cc. 

3-333 

15-90  c.c. 

3-145 

15-1 

3-312 

15-95 

3-135 

15-2 

3-290 

16-00 

3-125 

15-3 

3-268     \ 

16-05 

'3-115 

15-4 

3-246 

16-10 

3-105 

15-5 

3-225 

16-15 

3-095 

15-55 

3-215 

16-20 

3-086 

15-60 

3-205 

16-25 

3-077 

15-65 

3-195 

16-30 

3-067 

15-70 

3-185 

16-35 

3-058 

15-75 

3-175 

16-40 

3-049 

15-80 

3-165 

16-45 

3-039 

15-85 

3-155 

16-50 

3-030 

128  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

For  the  determination  of  the  specific  gravity  of  cemont  the 
committee  approve  the  use  of  a  bottle  of  the  form  shown  on 
plate  5,  B.S.S.,  1915. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY   DETERMINATIONS   BY   DIFFERENT    EXPERTS   IN 
THEIR  USUAL  WAY  UPON  THE  SAME  SAMPLE  OF  CEMENT 

"  Personal  Equation  " 

Expert  A  .          .         Specific  gravity  3*055 

„      B  „                     3-130 

C  „                     3-086 

„      D  .         .               „                     3-115 

E  3-110 


CHAPTER  XIII 

4 

FINENESS 

THE  fineness  to  which  cement  is  ground  is  a  matter  of  con- 
siderable importance  ;  with  the  growth  of  the  industry  this 
condition  has  become  fully  realized.  Many  of  the  old  records 
show  cements  leaving  residues  of  25  to  30  per  cent  on  a  sieve 
having  fifty  holes  per  lineal  inch  =  2,500  per  square  inch. 

It  is  now  conclusively  proved  that  only  the  very  fine  or 
impalpable  powder  present  has  cementing  qualities,  the  residue 
retained  on  a  sieve  having  180  holes  per  lineal  inch  (  =  32,400  per 
square  inch),  being  devoid  of  cementitious  value. 

The  fineness  of  the  material,  therefore,  is  a  measure  of  its 
cementing  value,  and  a  fine  cement  will  be  much  stronger  when 
mixed  in  a  mortar,  or  it  can  be  mixed  with  a  larger  proportion 
of  sand  than  a  coarse  one  and  yet  attain  the  same  strength. 

Again,  the  hardening  of  cement  is  caused  by  the  solution  and 
subsequent  crystallization  of  certain  of  its  elements,  so  that  this 
action  will  be  quickened  by  the  fineness  of  the  particles,  and  the 
ultimate  strength  will  be  sooner  attained. 

Fineness  of  the  cement  also  decreases  the  liability  to  unsound- 
ness,  the  fine  particles  being  seasoned  more  quickly. 

BRITISH  STANDARD  SPECIFICATION 

Summary 

100  grammes,  approximately  4oz.,  continually  sifted  for 
fifteen  minutes. 

Diameter  of  Residue  not 

fcieve  wire.  to  exceed 

180  X  180  mesh  sieve,  32,400  holes 

per  square  inch  .         .         .         0*0018  inch       14  per  cent 
76  X  76  mesh  sieve,   5,776  holes 

per  square  inch    .          .          .         0'0044       „  1         „ 

Apparatus  required 
Scales. 

Metric  weights. 

Sieve  having  76  holes  per  lineal  inch  =    5,776  per  square  inch. 
„      180  „  „       =32,400 

Procedure 

Weigh  out  100  grammes  of  cement. 

Place  carefully,  without  loss,  on  the  180  mesh  sieve.  Shake 
for  fifteen  minutes,  or  until  no  more  residue  is  coming  through, 
which  can  easily  be  seen  by  sifting  over  a  piece  of  white  paper. 
One  corner  of  the  sieve  may  be  tapped  gently  on  to  the  table 


130  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

or  bench,  but  great  care  must  be  taken  that  none  of  the  material 
is  jolted  over  the  side  of  the  sieve. 

Weigh  the  residue — not  the  flour  which  has  passed  through, 
which  is  liable  to  loss  during  the  operation  of  sifting.  Each 
gramme  of  residue,  of  course,  equals  1  per  cent.  Take  care 
that  no  material  is  lost  in  the  weighing,  and  that  none  is  left 
on  the  180  sieve. 

Transfer  the  residue  after  weighing  to  the  76  X  76  sieve. 
Shake  as  before  and  then  weigh  the  residue  again. 

Sieves  should  be  carefully  brushed  when  each  test  is  completed. 
The  use  of  dirty  sieves  will  affect  the  results  obtained. 

By  continual  use,  especially  if  kept  in  a  damp  place,  the 
mesh  of  the  wire  is  likely  to  become  choked  or  corroded,  especially 
in  the  case  of  the  finer  sieve,  in  which  case  the  results  become 
absolutely  misleading  and  incorrect. 

Sieves  can  be  cleaned  by  washing  in  very  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid  and  then  with  clean  fresh  water.  Afterwards  they  must 
be  thoroughly  dried. 

No  sieve  wire  which  has  become  distorted  or  damaged  in 
any  way  should  under  any  circumstances  be  used,  and  there 
must  be  no  recesses  in  the  frame  in  which  residues  could  lodge. 

The  sieves  used  must  be  made  of  correct  standard  wire.  It 
will  be  readily  understood,  especially  in  connexion  with  the  very 
fine  sieve  (the  180),  that  the  diameter  of  the  wire  with  which 
it  is  woven  has  an  important  bearing  on  the  size  of  the  hole, 
which  is  the  essential  factor.  The  Standard  Specification  pre- 
scribes the  diameter  of  the  wire  for  each  sieve.  (See  p.  129.) 

Other  sieves  in  occasional  use  are  : — 

50  x    50  =    2,500  holes  per  square  inch. 
100x100  =  10,000 
200  X  200  =  40,000 

It  is  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  obtain  wire  cloth  of 
absolute  and  uniform  accuracy,  especially  in  the  finer  meshes. 

1  OBSERVATIONS  ON  FINENESS 

Limitation  of  the  Sieve  Test 

The  fineness  to  which  cement  is  ground  is  an  important  point. 
Since  cement  is  usually  used  with  sand,  the  strength  of  the 
mortar  increases  with  the  fineness  of  the  cement,  because  the 
greater  is  the  covering  power  of  the  cement,  i.e.  the  more  parts 
of  cement  come  into  action  with  the  sand.  A  test  for  fineness 
is  nearly  always  included  in  cement  specifications,  as  the  indica- 
tions from  a  fair  degree  of  fineness,  coupled  with  proper  tensile 
strength,  neat,  are  that  the  cement  will  give  good  results  when 
used  with  sand. 

At  the  same  time  the  most  rigid  fineness  specification  could 
be  filled  by  a  cement  which  would  be  many  degrees  too  coarse. 

1  From  Meade's 'Portland  Cement. 


FINENESS 


131 


Some  of  the  older  specifications  could  be  easily  filled  by  a  product 
which  would  show  almost  no  setting  qualities  and  no  sand-carrying 
capacity.  If  a  sample  of  clinker  is  crushed  in  an  iron  mortar 
by  a  pestle  and  sieved  as  fast  as  it  is  ground  through  a  100  mesh 
screen  a  product  will  be  obtained,  100  per  cent  of  which  will 
pass  a  100  mesh  screen.  Many  of  the  older  specifications  call 
for  only  90  per  cent.  If  a  pat  is  made  of  this  cement  it  will 
just  about  cohere.  If,  however,  the  fine  particles  are  sieved 
through  a  200  mesh  screen,  and  the  flour  washed  off  the  coarse 
particles  by  benzine  and  the  latter  driven  oiff  by  heat,  the  product 
will  still  all  pass  a  100  mesh  sieve,  and  yet  will  have  no  setting 
properties.  If  another  sample  is  ground  in  a  mortar  and  sieved 
after  every  few  strokes  of  the  pestle  through  a  200  mesh  screen 
it  will  all  pass  a  200  mesh  sieve  and  yet  will,  nevertheless,  be 
almost  worthless  as  a  cement.  When  washed  free  from  its  flour 
with  benzine  it  will  just  about  hold  together.  In  the  writer's 
laboratory  there  is  a  Braun's  gyratory  muller  for  grinding 
samples,  in  which  the  grinding  is  done  by  an  enclosed  round 
pestle  revolving  in  a  semi-hemispherical  mortar.  In  the  bottom 
of  the  mortar  is  a  hole,  which  can  be  stopped  by  a  plug.  The 
grinding  may  be  done  in  two  ways  :  one  by  feeding  the  sample 
into  the  hopper  in  the  cover  and  allowing  it  to  work  its  way  out 
at  the  bottom,  then  sieving  out  the  fine  material  from  the  coarse, 
and  returning  the  latter  through  the  grinder,  and  so  on  until 
all  has  passed  the  sieve  ;  the  other  by  placing  the  plug  in  the 
bottom  of  the  mortar  and  allowing  the  pestle  to  work  upon  the 
material  until  the  latter  has  reached  the  desired  fineness.  Two 
samples  of  cement  were  prepared  from  the  same  lot  of  3linker  by 
these  methods.  One  sample,  the  one  made  by  passing  the  clinker 
through  the  muller  and  sieving  out  the  200  mesh  particles  after 
each  grind,  would,  of  course,  all  pass  a  200  mesh  sieve.  The 
other  sample,  the  one  made  by  grinding  the  whole  sample  to 
the  desired  fineness  without  screening,  tested  96  per  cent  through 
a  100  mesh  sieve  and  75'6  per  cent  through  a  200  mesh  sieve. 
Sand  briquettes  were  made  of  these  two  lots  of  cement  with 
the  following  results  :  — 


Samples  made  by 

7  days. 

28  days. 

3  months. 

6  months  . 

Grinding  and  screening  to  fine- 
ness (all  200  mesh) 
Grinding  to   fineness  without 
screening    .... 

lb. 
Broke  in 

clips 

215 

lb. 
Broke  in 
clips 

295 

lb. 
Broke  in 
clips 

324 

lb. 

28 

318 

The  cementing  value  of  Portland  Cement  depends  upon  the 
percentage  of  those  infinitesimal  particles  which  we  call  flour. 
No  sieve  is  fine  enough  to  tell  the  quantity  of  these  present. 


132  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

INFLUENCE  OF  FlNE  GRINDING  OF  CEMENT  UPON  ITS   SETTING  TlME 


Per  cent,  passing  a  No.  200  sieve. 

Cement  No. 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 

Setting  time  (initial  set)  in  minutes. 

1 

255 

246 

192 

75 

12 

2 

2 

105 

106 

100 

100 

22 

6 

3 

120 

115 

100 

95 

60 

35 

4 

240 

200 

180 

115 

60 

30 

5 

240 

210 

110 

55 

15 

5 

6 

200 

190 

175 

100 

25 

2 

7 

100 

100 

90 

80 

25 

5 

8 

115 

105 

100 

75 

30 

10 

At  the  same  mill  it  is  probable  that  the  sieve  test  is  relative, 
but  to  the  engineer,  who  is  called  upon  to  examine  the  product 
of  many  mills  using  different  systems  of  grinding-,  the  sieve  test 
is  hardly  to  be  expected  to  give  the  relative  percentage  of  flour 
in  each.  The  products  of  the  Griffin  mill  and  of  the  ball  and 
tube  mill  probably  differ  much  in  the  percentage  of  flour  present, 
even  when  testing  the  same  degree  of  fineness  on  the  200  mesh 
sieve.  Even  with  the  ball  and  tube  mill  system,  one  ball  mill 
and  two  tube  mills  would  probably  give  a  product  with  a  higher 
percentage  of  flour  than  one  tube  mill  and  two  ball  mills,  even 
when  the  cement  was  ground  to  the  same  sieve  test.  The  size 
screen  on  the  ball  mills  probably  also  influences  the  percentage 
of  flour  in  a  product  of  a  certain  fineness. 

"  The  influence  of  fineness  upon  the  rate  of  set  of  cement  is 
in  some  instances  quite  marked  ;  in  other  instances  this  is  much 
less  noticeable.  If  any  effect  is  produced  at  all,  and  there 
generally  is,  it  is  to  make  the  cement  quicker  setting— in  some 
instances  so  quick-setting  as  to  be  unfit  for  use,  and  often  where 
this  is  the  case  additions  of  plaster  of  Paris  fail  to  retard  the  set 
sufficiently  to  allow  the  cement  to  be  used." 

1  SHOWING  EFFECT  OF  FINE  GRINDING  OF  CEMENT  ON  SOUNDNESS 
Result  of  Five-hour  Steam  Test  (A.S.C.E.)      . 


No. 

As  received. 

Ground  to  pass 
No.  200  mesh  sieve. 

Ground  to  an  impalpable 
powder. 

1. 

Checked 

Sound 

_ 

2. 

Checked 

Sound 

— 

3. 

Checked 

Slightly  checked 

Sound 

4. 

Checked 

Slightly  checked 

Sound 

From  Meade's  Portland  Cement. 


FINENESS 


133 


1  SHOWING  INCREASE  IN  SAND  STRENGTH  DUE  TO  FINE  GRINDING 
TENSILE  STRENGTH  IN  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  INCH 

Neat 


Iday. 

7  days. 

28  days. 

3  mths. 

6  mths. 

1  year. 

2  years. 

As  received    .     .     . 

327 

630 

725 

720 

760 

825 

850 

Ground   to    pass   a 

200  mesh  sieve    . 

210 

525 

540 

540 

560 

575 

560 

1  :  3  Mortar 


1  day. 

7  days. 

28  days. 

3  mths. 

6  mths. 

1  year. 

2  years. 

As  received    . 

_ 

278 

357 

387 

390 

410 

425 

Ground   to    pass   a 

200  mesh  sieve    . 

~~ 

480 

555 

575 

615 

623 

640 

FINENESS    DETERMINATIONS    BY   DIFFERENT    EXPERTS    IN    THEIR 
USUAL  WAY  UPON  THE  SAME  SAMPLE  OF 

"Personal  Equation" 


Sieves. 


Experts. 

50 

76 

100 

180 

A 

Trace 

0-7 

1-5 

16-0 

B 

— 

0-6 

1-6 

11-0 

C 

— 

0-11 

2-1 

12-2 

D 

— 

0-11 

2-2 

20-0 

E 

Trace 

0-7 

2-1 

11-2 

From  Meade's  Portland  Cement. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
TENSILE    STRENGTH 

THIS  test  is  to  obtain  a  measure  of  the  strength  of  the  material 
as  used  in  actual  work. 

While  it  is  impossible  to  formulate  definite  ratios  between 
the  ultimate  strengths  of  cement  under  different  forms  of  stress, 
investigators  have  shown  that  the  strength  of  cement  in  tension 
forms  the  most  reliable  basis  in  calculating  the  values  of  the 
strength  under  forms  of  stress. 

BRITISH  STANDARD  SPECIFICATION 

Summary 
'Mode  of  gauging' — 

Neat. — The  cement  shall  be  mixed  with  such  a  pro- 
portion of  water  that  after  filling  into  the  mould  the 
mixture  shall  be  plastic. 

Sand. — The  mixture  of  cement  and  sand  shall  be  gauged 
with  so  much  water  as  to  be  moist  throughout,  but  no 
surplus  of  water  shall  appear  when  the  mixture  is  gently 
beaten  with  a  trowel  into  the  mould. 

Briquettes  of  the  form  shown  in  fig.  1,  plate  1,  B.S.S.,  to 
be  removed  from  mould  when  set,  and  kept  in  damp  atmosphere 
for  twenty-four  hours  after  gauging,  then  placed  in  fresh  water 
(renewed  every  seven  days)  until  required  for  breaking. 

When  breaking  briquettes,  load  to  be  applied  at  rate  of  100  Ib. 
in  twelve  seconds.  (See  figs.  2  and  3,  plate  1,  of  the  specifica- 
tions for  standard  type  of  briquette  clip.) 

Six  briquettes  to  be  gauged  both  for  seven  days  and  twenty  - 
eight  days,  and  the  average  taken  as  the  tensile  strength. 

The  briquettes  shall  bear  on  the  average  not  less  than  the 
following  tensile  stresses  before  breaking. 

Neat  Cement 

Seven  days  from  gauging  .         .         450  Ib. 
The  increase  from  seven  to  twenty-eight  days  shall  not  be 
less  than  the  following  formula  : — 

Breaking  strength  at  7  days  + 4Q'OOQ  [b- — 

Breaking  strength  at  7  days 

Cement  and  Sand 
Seven  days  from  gauging  .         .         200  Ib. 


TENSILE    STRENGTH  135 

The  increase  from  seven  to  twenty-eight  days  shall  not  be 
less  than  the  following-  formula  :  — 

10,000  Ib. 

Breaking  strength  at  7  days  +•= — p —  ,  _  , — 

Breaking  strength  at  7  days 

Apparatus  required 
Gauging  slab  of  non-porous  material  (marble,  glass,  slate,  or 

iron). 

Scales  and  weights. 
Briquette — moulds  and  plates. 
Trowel  (about  7Joz.). 

Graduated  measuring  glass — 50  c.c.  capacity. 
Standard  Leighton  Buzzard  sand. 
Tensile  machine. 

Procedure.     (1)  For  Testing  Neat  Cement 

Weigh  out  200  grammes  of  cement.  Measure  the  water,  and 
gauge  the  cement  in  the  manner  already  described. 

The  quantity  of  water  to  be  used  for  gauging  should  be 
tha,t  quantity  which  will  produce  a  plastic  condition  when  the 
cement  is  packed  in  the  mould,  but  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  cement  is  kept  in  the  form  of  a  damp  powder  until  then, 
when  slight  tapping  will  so  consolidate  it  as  to  render  it  plastic, 
and,  the  air  escaping  before  plasticity  is  reached,  a  solid  and 
homogeneous  briquette  will  be  obtained.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  cement  is  trowelled  into  a  plastic  mass  before  it  is  placed  in 
the  mould  the  air  bubbles  in  the  mixture  cannot  be  excluded, 
and  a  briquette  full  of  air  spaces  will  result. 

To  ascertain  the  quantity  of  water  that  is  required,  which 
usually  ranges  from  18  to  22  perl  cent,  according  to  the 
properties  of  the  cement  under  test,  a  trial  should  be  made  with 
one  or  two  briquettes,  which,  if  not  satisfactory,  should  not  be 
included  in  the  series  from  which  the  test  records  are  to  be  made. 

Place  the  mould  (after  slightly  greasing  it  in  order  to  prevent 
adhesion  of  any  cement)  on  a  non-absorbent  base-plate — 
preferably  of  iron  or  steel. 

In  filling  the  moulds,  enough  material  to  about  half  fill  them 
is  first  introduced  and  distributed  evenly  over  the  bottom  with 
the  fingers  and  thumbs,  without  exerting  any  appreciable 
pressure  ;  any  excess  of  material  is  then  placed  in  and  on  the 
mould,  extending  about  half  an  inch  above  it,  and  pressed  in 
firmly  with  the  thumbs  without  ramming.  Any  excess  of  material 
is  now  struck  off  with  the  trowel  flush  with  the  surface  of  the 
mould  under  a  pressure  of  about  5  Ib. 

Every  care  should  be  taken  to  fill  the  mould  completely  with 
cement  and  to  exclude  all  air  bubbles.  It  is  obvious  that  when 
testing  such  a  small  section  as  one  square  inch  the  mass  should 


136 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


consist  entirely  of  cement,  as  even  small  voids  will  materially 
reduce  the  actual  area  under  test  and  give  rise  to  low  and 
irregular  results. 

(2)  For  Testing  Cement  with  Three  Times  its  Volume  of  Sand 

Note. — The  British  Standard  Specification  stipulates  that 
Leighton  Buzzard  sand  shall  be  used,  so  graded  that  all  will 
pass  through  a  20  mesh  sieve  (400  holes  per  square  inch)  and 
be  retained  on  a  30  mesh  sieve  (900  holes  per  square  inch) . 

Weigh  out  50  grammes  of  cement  and  150  grammes  of 
standard  sand. 

Mix  thoroughly  in  the  dry  condition.  Add  water  proportionate 
to  the  quantity  required  for  the  neat  briquette  as  set  out  in 
the  following  table,  and  carefully  pack  the  material  into  the 
mould  as  described  for  the  neat  briquettes,  remembering  that 
even  greater  care  is  required  to  consolidate  the  sand  specimens. 

Provision  has  now  been  made  in  the  third  revision  of  the 
B.S.S.  for  a  standard  spatula,  shown  on  plate  2,  for  patting  down 
the  material  (cement  and1  sand)  in  the  moulds  until  water  appears 
on  the  surface. 

No  ramming  or  hammering  in  any  form  will  be  permitted 
during  the  preparation  of  the  briquettes,  which  shall  then  be 
finished  off  in  the  moulds  by  smoothing  the  surface  with  the 
blade  of  a  trowel.  , 

PROPORTION  OF  WATER  FOR  GAUGING  SAND  BRIQUETTES 
(Based  on  that  found  requisite  for  neat  cement.) 


1  cement, 

1  cement, 

1  cement, 

Neat. 

3  standard 

Neat. 

3  standard 

Neat. 

3  standard 

sand. 

sand. 

sand. 

Percentage 

Percentage 

Percentage 

Percentage 

Percentage 

Percentage 

of  water. 

of  water. 

of  water. 

of  water. 

of  water. 

of  water. 

15 

8-0 

23 

9-3 

31 

10-7 

16 

8-2 

24 

9-5 

32 

10-8 

17 

8-3 

25 

9-7 

33 

11-0 

18 

8-5 

26 

9-8 

34 

11-2 

19 

8-7 

27 

10-0 

35 

11-5 

20 

8-8 

28 

10-2 

36 

11-5 

21 

9-0 

29 

10-3 

37 

11-7 

22 

9-2 

30 

10-5 

38 

11-8 

GENERAL  NOTES 

In  some  countries  the  Boehme  hammer  or  some  other 
mechanical  ramming  apparatus  is  used  for  sand  specimens,  but 
this  is  not  permitted  by  the  British  Standard  Specification. 

See  that  the  briquette  moulds  are  free  from  any  excess  of 


TENSILE    STRENGTH  137 

lubricating  material.  The  use  of  a  large  quantity  of  oil  or  grease 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  cement  sticking  to  the  mould 
will  often  entirely  destroy  the  qualities  of  the  cement  placed 
therein. 

When  the  mould  is  being  filled  some  quantity  of  cement  of 
necessity  falls  on  and  (about  it,  and  this  should  never  be  gathered 
up  and  used  to  form  the  briquette,  because  such  cement  may 
have  oil  adhering  thereto,  which  thus  finds  its  way  into  the 
interior  of  the  briquette  and,  destroying  the  hardening  properties 
of  the  cement,  prevents  its  complying  with  the  specification. 

Briquettes  should  always  be  made  singly,  especially  when  the 
cement  is  quick-setting. 

The  custom  of  gauging*  enough  cement  at  one  time  to  fill 
several  moulds  is  objectionable,  and  frequently  leads  to  trouble 
— the  first  briquette,  and  perhaps  the  second,  turn  out  all  right, 
but  the  remainder  may  fall  short  of  the  required  strength,  because 
the  cement  had  begun  to  set  before  the  briquettes  were  finished. 
The  setting  of  the  cement  once  having  been  checked  is  seriously 
retarded,  if  not  altogether  prevented.  Again,  it  is  objectionable 
to  use  "  nests  "  of  moulds,  say  four  or  six,  as  is  frequently  done, 
even  if  the  briquette  is  gauged  singly,  as  with  a  moderately 
quick-setting  cement  the  packing  of  the  last  briquette  disturbs 
by  vibration  the  setting  of  the  first  of  the  series,  which  may  be 
already  in  progress. 

Each  mould  should  be  quite  separate  and  distinct  and,  when 
filled,  placed  where  no  vibration  can  disturb  it. 

Even  slow-setting  cements  may  not  escape  failure  under  these 
two  headings. 

All  briquettes,  whether  neat  or  with  sand,  when  first  gauged 
should  remain  in  the  mould  for  twenty-flour  hours,  and  be  kept 
in  a  damp  atmosphere  at  normal  temperature  during  the  whole  of 
that  period. 

They  are  then  carefully  removed  and  immersed  in  water  at 
58°  to-  64°  F.  until  due  for  breaking. 

Briquettes  should  be  broken  at  the  appointed  dates, 
immediately  after  being*  taken  out  of  the  water,  and  should  not 
be  left  about  to  dry  before  being  tested. 

All  the  precautions  recommended  for  the  making  of  neat 
briquettes  apply  equally  when  making  briquettes  containing  a 
mixture  of  cement  and  sand. 

Many  types  of  tensile  testing  machines  are  in  use.  What- 
ever form  be  used,  the  briquettes  should  be  placed  evenly  and 
squarely  in  the  standard  clips,  so  that  when  the  strain  is  applied 
the  pull  is  even  on  all  parts  of  the  square  inch  section  and 
no  side  strains  are  set  up,  which  would  result  in  defective  fracture 
and  irregular  results.  The  jaws  for  gripping  the  briquettes  must 
be  of  the  standard  type. 


138  THE    PORTLAND    CEMEST    IXDUSTXY 

It  is  important  also  that  the  strain  be  applied  evenly  at  a 
uniform  rate.  The  standard  specification  provides  for  the  applica- 
tion at  the  rate  of  100  Ib.  in  twelve  seconds— very  irregular  results 
will  be  obtained  if  care  be  not  taken  in  this  particular. 

The  result  of  any  briquette  which  is  exceptionally  low  should 
be  eliminated,  as  it  is  evident  the  fault  must  be  due  to  manipula- 
tion, because  whatever  strain  the  other  briquettes  of  the  series  may 
be  capable  of  standing'  gjl  should  bear  under  like  conditions. 

In  foreign  countries  where  the  Metric  system  is  in  use  the 
results  of  tensile  and  crushing  tests  are  given  in  kilogrammes 
per  square  centimetre— a  comparative  table  showing  the 
equivalent  in  kilogrammes  per  square  centimetre,  for  the 
British  standard  of  pounds  per  square  inch  and  tons  per  foot, 
is  given. 

In  making  tests  for  breaking  at  long  periods  a  falling  away 
in  the  tensile  strength  is  sometimes  noticed  at  certain  inter- 
vening dates.  It  is  well  known  to  manufacturers  and  those 
interested  in  the  industry  that  there  is  a  time  in  the  life  of  set 
cement  when  some  physical  alteration  in  its  condition  takes  place, 
but  there  is  no  need  to  be  alarmed  by  a  slight  falling  away  in 
the  tensile  strength  at  one  or  more  of  these  periods. 

It  will  almost  invariably  be  found  that  at  later  dates' the 
cement  recovers,  and  thereafter  gains  steadily  in  strength. 

These  lapses  are  sometimes  noticed  at  fourteen  days,  but  more 
often  at  from  nine  to  twelve  months  after  gauging. 


CHAPTER 
TIME    OF    SETTING 

* 

THIS  test  is  made  to  determine  the  fitness  of  the  material 
for  a  given  piece  of  work.  In  actual  construction,  a  cement 
should  not  have  begun  to  set  before  being  placed  in  the  work. 
The  "set"  takes  place  in  two  stages-first  the  "initial"  set 
due  to  the  more  rapid  hydration  and  crystallisation  of  the  calcium 
aluminate  of  the  cement,  and  then  the  "final"  set  due  to  the 
slower  hydration  and  crystallization  of  the  calcium  silicate  of  the 
cement.  The  initial  set  is  of  the  greater  importance,  as  it  is 
essential  for  good  concrete  that  the  mortar  should  not  be  handled 
or  disturbed  after  this  begins— that  is  to  say,  the  concrete  or 
mortar  must  be  mixed  and  deposited  in  its  intended  position 
within  the  period  of  time  before  the  initial  set  begins.  For 
instance,  if  the  initial  set  of  a  cement  be  thirty  minutes  the 
mortar  should,  if  possible,  be  deposited  in  situ  within  thirty 
minutes  after  adding  the  water.  This,  however,  is  susceptible 
of  some  latitude,  for  the  mixture  of  aggregate  with  cement  results 
in  a  somewhat  slower  initial  set  than  occurs  with  neat  cement. 

BRITISH  STANDARD  SPECIFICATION 
Summary 

[Initial  set  not  less  than  2  minutes. 
Quick       -;  Final  not  less  than  10  minutes,  nor  more  than  30 

minutes, 
-ir  j-         [Initial  set  not  less  than  10  minutes. 

(Final  not  less  than  30  minutes,  nor  more  than  3  hours, 
<«  (Initial  not  less  than  30  minutes. 

(Final  not  less  than  3  hours,  nor  more  than  7  hours. 
The  cement  shall  be  considered  as  finally  set  when,  upon 
applying  the  needle  gently  to  the  surface  of  the  test  block,  the 
needle  makes  a  slight  impression  thereon,1  while  the  attachment 
shown  in  the  figure  on  plate  3  fails  to  do  so  (from  third  revision 
of  B.S.S.,  1915). 

Apparatus  required 

Gauging  slab  of  non-porous  material. 

Trowel. 

Scales. 

One  400  gramme  weight  (or  two  200  gramme  weights). 

1  Ik  most  be  understood  to  mean  a  slight  impression  only  and  in  no  sense 
a  piercing. 


140 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


Graduating  measuring  glass,  50  c.  capacity. 
Large  palette  "knife. 

Standard  needle.     (The  needle  to  be  used  is  known  as  the 
Vicat.) 

PLUNGER 

Weight 

3OO  grammes 


MOULD 
8  cent/metres 
diameter 


NEEDLED 
Jm.m.  squa^ 
(O39/nch) 


GLASS  PLATE 


The  Vicat  Needle. 


Description 

Weight  of  rod,  complete  witli  plunger  and  needle,  300  grammes 

(10-58  oz.). 

Plunger  1  centimetre  diameter. 
Needle  point,  1  millimetre  square. 
Depth  of  mould,  4  centimetres  (1-57  inches). 
Diameter  of  ditto,  8  centimetres  (Scinches). 

Procedure 

Weigh  out  and  place  on  the  slab  400  grammes  of  cement. 
(See  general  notes  on  gauging.) 

Measure  the  quantity  of  water  in  a  graduated  glass.  The 
majority  of  cements  require  between  20  and  24  per  cent  to  bring 
them  into  a  plastic  condition,  and  the  first  mixing  should  be 
made  with  the  lesser  quantity  ;  if  this  be  found  insufficient  a 
further  1  or  2  per  cent  as  required  can  afterwards  be  added. 
Should  the  quantity  first  taken  be  found  excessive,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  mix  afresh  with  less  water. 

.  Do  not  use  an  excess  of  water,  which  results  in  a  scum  on 
the  surface  of  the  pat,  rendering  observation  of  the  real 
impressions  difficult  and  causing  divergent  results,  besides  pro- 
longing the  actual  setting  time. 


TIME    OF    SETTING 


141 


The  moment  when  the  water  is  added  to  the  cement  should 
be  noted,  and  the  "  time  "  of  "  setting- "  reckoned  therefrom. 

After  working  the  paste  or  mortar  to  the  proper  consistency,  it 
is  pressed  in  the  mould  ring-  (which  is  placed  on  a  glass  or 
steel  plate)  and  smoothed  off  with  a  trowel  perfectly  level  with 
the  top  edge  of  the  ring-.  The  paste  confined  in  the  ring  and 
resting  on  the  non-absorbent  plate  is  then  placed  under  the  rod 
bearing  the  needle  (1  millimetre  square)  with  which  the  initial 
and  final  setting  times  are  determined.  The  initial  set  is  recorded 
when  the  needle,  upon  being  lowered  gently  on  to  the  cement, 
fails  to  penetrate  to  the  plate  at  the  bottom.  The  final  or  complete 
set  is  recorded  when  the  needle  fails  to  make  any  appreciable 
impression  on  the  surface  of  the  cement. 

The  set,  therefore,  should  be  calculated  in  the  following 
example  : — 

Water  added  to  cement     .         .         .         10.45  a.m. 
Needle  failed  to  penetrate  pat    .         .         11.55  a.m. 

Initial  set  .         .         .    1  h.  10  m. 

Needle  made  only  faint  impression    .  2.30  p.m. 

Final  set   .         .         .    3  h.  45m. 

A  fruitful  source  of  dispute  in  connexion  with  the  setting 
time  of  cement  is  the  question  of  what  constitutes  faint  impression 
— one  operator  carrying'  on  the  test  until  practically  no  mark  at 
all  is  visible,  and  thus  recording  a  much  longer  setting  time 
than  another  operator  who  reads  his  final  set  at  a  much  earlier 


.A.  ><r 


/m/n  SQUARE 

-03$" 


Air  Venf 


_      — vc.  _  . 
'^m.m.-^ 

•02"~*~~ 


Enlarged  view  of  Needle  A. 


142 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


point.  Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  arrive  at  a  standard 
depth  of  impression  for  reading  the  final  set  ;  but  the  advent 
of  the  third  revision  of  the  B.S.S.  1915  places  the  question 
of  final  setting  on  a  more  satisfactory  basis,  provision  being 
made  for  a  needle  fitted  with  a  metal  attachment  hollowed  out 
so  as  to  leave  a  circular  edge  5  mm.  (0'020  in.)  in  diameter,  the 
end  of  the  needle  projecting  0*5  mm.  (0'20  in.)  beyond  the  edge. 

The  cement  supplied  by  a  manufacturer  to  a  required  setting 
time  may  vary  considerably  in  its  setting  characteristics  in 
accordance  with  the  amount  of  aeration  to  which  the  sample  is 
subjected,  and]  this  unavoidable  variation,  due  to  atmospheric 
causes,  is  another  source  of  trade  disputes.  As  has  already  been 
said,  the  cement  should  be  tested  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is 
received. 

The  proportion  of  water  used  in  gauging,  as  well  as  the 
temperature  and  humidity  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  play  a 
not  inconsiderable  part  in  determining  the  setting  of  cement. 
A  hot  dry  atmosphere  will  hasten  the  setting,  and  a  cold  or  moist 
atmosphere  will  retard  it — hence  the  importance  of  uniform 
atmospheric  conditions  in  the  testing-room. 

The  setting  time  of  cement  is  also  influenced  by  a  number 
of  other  factors — 

(1)  The  fineness  to  which  the  cement  has  been  ground. 

(2)  The  time  that  has  elapsed  since  manufacture. 

(3)  The  conditions  under  which  the  cement  has  been  stored. 

(4)  The  action  of  material,  such  as  gypsum,  added  for  the 

purpose  of  retarding  the  setting  time. 

(5)  The  possible  presence  of  soluble  materials  in  the  aggregate 

used  with  the  cement  to  form  the  concrete. 

(6)  The  composition  and  the  clearness  or  the  reverse  of  the 

water  used  for  gauging. 

(7)  Accidental  causes,  such  as  the  introduction  of  oil,  grease, 

or  other  foreign  matter. 

A  comparative  table  is  here  given,  showing  the  equivalent 
pressure  per  square  inch  exerted  by  the  different  needles 
described  : — 


Description. 

Weight. 

Size  of 
Needle. 

Area  of 
Needle. 

Pressure 
exerted  by 
Needle. 

Ib.  per 

square  inch. 

square  inch. 

British  Standard 

300  grammes 

1  mm.  sq. 

Vicat 

=  10-58  oz. 

=  0-03937 

0-001550 

426 

American  Gilmore 

Initial 

4oz. 

•j^"  diam. 

0-005450676 

46 

Final 

16  oz. 

A"    » 

0-00136353 

733 

TIME    OF    SETTING 


143 


In  addition  to  the  Vioat  needle  there  are  others  in  use  in 
America  known  as  the  "  Gilmore  "  needles.  These  consist  of  a 
small  needle  weighing-  4  oz.  with  a  point  T^  inch  in 
diameter  for  determining  the  initial  set,  and  a  larger  needle 
weighing  16  oz.,  with  a  point  only  -^  inch  in  diameter, 
for  determining  the  final  set. 

1  EFFECT  OF  STORAGE  OF  PORTLAND  CEMENT  ON  ITS  SETTING 
PROPERTIES 

"  No  property  of  Portland  Cement  is  harder  to  control  than 
its  '  set ',  or  gives  the  manufacturer  more  trouble.  This  is  not 
so  much  because  of  any  difficulty  in  the  way  of  making  a  slow- 
setting  cement,  as  it  is  of  making  one  which  will  remain  slow- 
setting  under  all  ordinary  conditions  of  storing  and  ageing. 


40ZS. 


I60ZS. 


Gilmore  Needles  mounted  on  Stand. 

Every  manufacturer  can  cite  instances  of  cement  which  left  the 
mill  having  the  proper  setting  time,  and  yet  which  turned  up  at 
the  job  with  a  '  flash  '  set.  Bins  of  freshly  made  cement  will 
frequently  test  slow-setting  and  yet,  after  seasoning  some  weeks, 
will  show  quick  set  on  again  testing. 

"  The  converse  of  (this  is  also  true  ;  some  cements  which,  when 
freshly  made,  are  quick -setting,  will  in  time  become  slow-setting, 
and,  again,  slow-setting  cements  may  become  quick-setting  and 
then  slow-setting  again.'' 


From  Meade's  Portland  Cement. 


144 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


1  INFLUENCE  OF  VARIOUS  PERCENTAGES  OF  WATER  USED  TO  GAUGE 

THE   PATS  ON  THE   SETTING  TlME  OF   PORTLAND  CEMENT 


Percentage 
of  Water. 

Sample  No. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

14 

Initial  set 

h.      m. 
0     10 

h.      m. 
2     10 

h.      m. 
0      10 

h.       m. 

0     25 

Final  set 

2     45 

6       0 

0     35 

0     55 

16 

Initial  set 

0     20 

2     20 

0     10 

0     25 

Final  set 

3     50 

6       0 

0     35 

1       0 

18 

Initial  set 

1       5 

2     20 

0     10 

0     35 

Final  set 

5       0 

6     15 

0     35 

1     15 

20 

Initial  set 

2     10 

2     40 

0       8 

1     25 

Final  set 

6     20 

6     15 

0     30 

4       0 

22 

Initial  set 

4     20 

3       0 

0       5 

2     15 

Final  set 

8       0 

6     50 

0     30 

5       0 

24 

Initial  set 

5     10 

5       0 

0     20 

3       0 

Final  set 

12     10 

8     30 

0     50 

6     10 

1  SHOWING  THE  EFFECT  OF  PLASTER  OF  PARIS  ON  THE  SETTING 
TIME  OF  PORTLAND  CEMENT 


Percentage  of 
Plaster  of 
Paris  added. 

Percentage  of 
Water  used  to 
make  pats. 

Initial  Set. 

Final  Set. 

h.      m. 

h.      m. 

— 

25 

0       2 

0       6 

0-5 

23 

0       5 

0     10 

1-0 

23 

0     50 

4       0 

1-5 

23 

2     50 

6       0 

2-0 

22 

3       0 

6     15 

3 

22 

1     45 

5     20 

4 

22 

0     35 

4       0 

5 

22 

0     16 

2       0 

10 

22 

0     16 

1     30 

20 

22 

0       9 

0     20 

From  Meade's  Portland  Cement. 


TIME    OF    SETTING- 


145 


1  INFLUENCE  OF  TEMPERATURE  ON  THE  RATE  OF  SETTING  OF 
PORTLAND  CEMENT 


Temp, 
degrees  F.2 

l 

Samp 
2 

e  No. 
3 

4 

35 

Initial  set 

h.      m. 
3       0 

h.      m. 
5       0 

h.      m. 
2       0 

h.      m. 
2     10 

Final  set 

8       0 

10       0 

6       0 

6       0 

45 

Initial  set 

1       5 

3       0 

1     15 

1       5 

Final  set 

3     15 

7     30 

3     30 

3     15 

60 

Initial  set 

.0     30 

2     30 

0     15 

0       3 

Final  set 

1     10 

6       0 

1       0 

0     10 

80 

Initial  set 

0       4 

2       0 

0       2 

— 

Final  set 

0     10 

5     30 

0       5 

— 

100 

Initial  set 

— 

0     45 

— 

— 

Final  set 

— 

3     10 

— 

— 

SHOWING  THE  EFFECT  OF  GYPSUM  ON  THE  SETTING  TIME  or 
PORTLAND  CEMENT 


Percentage  of 
Gypsum  added. 

Percentage  of 
Water  used  for 
making.pats. 

Initial  Set. 

Final  Set. 

h.      m. 

h.      m. 

1 

23 

0       2 

0     10 

2 

23 

2     40 

5     50 

3 

22 

2     50 

5     50 

5 

22 

3     15 

6       0 

10 

22 

3       0 

5     40 

20 

22 

3     20 

6       0 

"  PERSONAL  EQUATION  " 
SETTING  TIME  DETERMINATIONS  BY  DIFFERENT  EXPERTS  IN  THEIR 

USUAL   WAY   UPON   THE   SAME    SAMPLE   OF   CEMENT 


Expert. 

Room 
Temperature. 

Water 
per  cent. 

Setting  Time. 

Initial. 

Final. 

h. 

m. 

h. 

m. 

A 

53°  F. 

25 

1 

13 

2 

12 

B 

58°  F. 

25 

0 

45 

2 

15 

C 

58°  F. 

22 

0 

50 

2 

5 

D 

50°  F. 

22| 

0 

55 

4 

47 

E 

55°  F. 

20 

0 

50 

2 

40 

*  From  Meade's  Portland  Cement. 

a  Of  room  during  setting  time,  and  of  cement  and  of  water  used  to  gauge  pats. 


146  THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 

INFLUENCE  OF  AGEING  ON  THE  SET  OF  PORTLAND  CEMENT 


l 

2 

Si 
3 

imple  N 
4 

3. 

5 

6 

7 

Fresh 

Initial  set 

h.  m. 
2  50 

h.  m. 
3  10 

h.  m. 
4  10 

h.  m. 
2  40 

h.  m. 
0     2 

h.  m. 

0  10 

h.  ru. 
0     4 

Final  set 

6     0 

6  40 

8     0 

6  15 

0  15 

0  25 

0  10 

1  week  old 

Initial  set 

1  30 

0  10 

2  15 

0     3 

0     2 

0     5 

0     4 

Final  set 

4  30 

0  25 

6     0 

0     8 

0  10 

0  15 

0  10 

2  weeks  old 

Initial  set 

0     3 

0     5 

1  25 

0     3 

0  15 

0  30 

0     4 

Final  set 

0     7 

0  11 

3  40 

0     8 

0  35 

1     5 

0  10 

4  weeks  old 

Initial  set 

0     3 

0     5 

0  30 

0     5 

1  30 

1  50 

0  15 

Final  set 

0     7 

0  15 

1  50 

0  11 

4  10 

4  45 

0  30 

3  months 
old 

Initial  set 

0  30 

0     4 

0  10 

0     3 

1  35 

2     0 

2  40 

Final  set 

1  15 

0  15 

0  30 

0     8 

4     0 

6  10 

6     5 

6  months 
old 

Initial  set 

0  25 

0  20 

— 

0     3 

2  10 

2     0 

2  10 

Final  set 

1  15 

1  10 

.— 

0     8 

6     0 

6  10 

5  40 

1  year  old 

Initial  set 

0  25 

0  55 

2  20 

0     4 

2     0 

1  40 

2  15 

Final  set 

1  10 

2  30 

5  40 

0  10 

5  30 

5     5 

6     0 

SHOWING  THE  EFFECT  OF  DEAD  BURNED  GYPSUM  ON  THE 
SETTING  TIME  OF  PORTLAND  CEMENT 


Percentage  of 
dead  burned 
Gypsum  added. 

Percentage  of 
Water  used  to 
make  pats. 

Initial  Set. 

Final  Set. 

h.    m. 

h.    m. 

1 

23 

0      6 

0     10 

2 

23 

1     45 

5     10 

3 

23 

1     47 

5     30 

5 

23 

2       0 

5     40 

10 

23 

1     50 

5       0 

20 

23 

2     20 

5       0 

TIME    OF    SETTING 


147 


SETTING  TIME  DETERMINATIONS  BY  DIFFERENT  EXPERTS  UPON  THE 
SAME  SAMPLE  OF  CEMENT,  WITH  AN  UNIFORM  PERCENTAGE 
OF  WATER,  viz.  22  PER  CENT,  AND  ALL  AS  FAR  AS  POSSIBLE 
AT  A  TEMPERATURE  OF  60°  F. 


Expert. 

Final  Setting  Time. 

Temp,  degrees  F. 

h.     m. 

A 

1       40 

61 

B 

1       15 

60 

C 

1       27 

60 

D 

2       30 

56  to  60 

E 

0       38 

64 

F 

1       25 

60 

G 

1       40 

60 

H 

0       55 

60 

I 

1         0 

60 

CHAPTER  XVI 
SOUNDNESS    OR    CONSTANCY    OF    VOLUME 

THE  object  of  this  test  is  to  develop  those  qualities  which  tend 
to  destroy  the  strength  and  durability  of  a  cement  and  is  therefore 
the  most  important  quality,  for  although  a  sample  may  pass  all 
other  tests  satisfactorily,  if  it  fail  in  the  soundness  test  it  is 
worthless  as  a  material  for  construction. 

Failure  is  revealed  by  cracking,  checking,  swelling,  or  dis- 
integration, or  all  of  these  phenomena. 

A  cement  which  remains  perfectly  sound  is  said  to  be  of 
constant  volume. 

Tests  for  soundness  are  divided  into  two  classes,  "normal" 
and  "  accelerated  ". 

(Accelerated  tests  were  introduced  to  hasten  the  action  of  the 
expansive  ingredients  and  to  develop  within  a  few  hours  for  which 
the  normal  pats  require  weeks.) 

NORMAL  TESTS 

A  pat  of  neat  cement  is  immersed  in  water,  maintained  as  near 
70°  F.  as  possible  for  twenty-eight  days,  and  observed  at  intervals  ; 
a  similar  pat  is  maintained  in  air  at  ordinary  temperature  and 
observed  at  intervals. 

ACCELERATED  TESTS 

A  pat  of  neat  cement  paste  is  exposed  in  any  convenient  way 
in  an  atmosphere  of  steam,  or  immersed  in  cold  water  which  is 
raised  to  boiling-point  in  about  thirty  minutes  and  maintained 
thereat  for  six  hours. 

For  these  tests,  pats  3  inches  in  diameter,  1  in.  thick  at  the 
centre,  and  tapering  to  a  knife  edge,  should  be  made  upon  a  clean 
glass  plate  4  inches  square  from  cement  paste  of  normal  consistency. 

All  pats  are  put  into  the  baths  with  a  plate  of  glass  on  which 
they  have  been  allowed  to  set. 

SOUNDNESS 

(British  Standard  Specification) 
Summary 


Expansion. 

Not  to  exceed 

In 

Le  Chatelier  gauge  after  being  aerated 

24  hours 
7  days 

10-0  mm. 
5-0  mm. 

SOUNDNESS    OR    CONSTANCY    OF    VOLUME 


149 


LE  CHATELIER  TEST 

(Accelerated) 
Apparatus  required 
Gauging  slab  of  non-porous  material. 
Le  Chatelier  gauge — 

Two  glass  plates  about  4  inches  square. 

Small  lead  weight. 

Graduated  measuring  glass — 50  c.c.  capacity. 

Trowel. 

Millimetre  measuring  rule. 

Copper  bath  or  other  receptacle  for  boiling  specimens. 

Procedure 

The  mould  is  placed  on  one  of  the  glass  plates.  Fifty  grammes 
cement,  gauged  in  the  usual  way,  is  filled  into  the  mould,  care 
being  taken  not  to  press  the  cement  in  too  hard  so  as  to  force  the 
ring  open.  It  is  then  covered  by  another  glass  plate,  a  small 
weight  being  placed  on  the  top  to  keep  the  plate  in  position,  and 

| I65M/M 1 

I  6V 

I 
i 


Split 


Split  Cylinder  of  Spring  Brass  or  other  suitable  metal, 
about  i  mm.  in  thickness. 


a  Glass 


Glass 


The  Le  Chatelier  Gauge. 

the  mould  is  immersed  in  cold  water  for  twenty-four  hours.  At 
the  end  of  that  time  the  distance  between  the  needle  points  is 
measured  and  the  mould  is  placed  in  cold  water,  which  is  heated 
until  in  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes  it  is  brought  to  the  boil. 

Boiling  is  continued  for  six  hours  and,  after  cooling,  the  distance 
between    the   needle   points   is   again  measured.      The   difference 


150 


THE    PORTLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


between  the  two  measurements  represents  the  expansion  of  the 
cement. 

OTHER  TESTS  FOR  SOUNDNESS 
(Accelerated) 

Faija  Test 

One  of  the  first  accelerated  tests,  devised  by  Mr.  Henry  Faija  in 
1882,  consists  of  a  water-jacketed  bath  containing  water  which  is 
maintained  at  a  temperature  of  115°  F.,  and  immediately  a  pat 
intended  for  the  test  has  been  gauged  upon  a  plate  of  glass  it  is 


r 


Faija's  Soundness  Test  Apparatus. 

placed  on  the  shelf  above  the  water,  the  lid  is  put  on,  and  the  pat 
is  left  to  set  in  the  steam-saturated  atmosphere.  When  set  hard  it 
is  placed  in  the  water  (at  115°  F.)  and  allowed  to  remain  for  twenty- 
four  hours. 

The  author  states  that  if  a  test  pat  after  the  above  treatment 
shows  no  signs  of  cracking  or  blowing  and  adheres  firmly  to  the 
glass  on  which  it  was  made  it  may  be  used  with  perfect  confidence. 

Deval  Test 

A  similar  bath  is  used  for  this  test,  in  which  the  water  is  raised 
to  a  temperature  of  174°  F.  In  this  case  the  pat  is,  after  gauging, 
allowed  to  set  in  moist  air  at  normal  temperature.  It  is  then  placed 
in  cold  water  in  the  Deval  bath,  which  is  raised  to  the  above 


SOUNDNESS    OE    CONSTANCY    OF    VOLUME          151 

temperature,  at  which  it  is  kept  and  in  which  the  pat  remains  for 
twenty-four  hours. 

Boiling  Test 

In  this  case  the  bath  is  not  water-jacketed,  for  obvious  reasons, 
and  an  ordinary  pan  of  any  kind  will  do.  The  procedure  with 
regard  to  the  pat  is  similar  to  the  Deval  test,  except  that  the  cold 
water  in  which  the  pat  is  placed  is  raised  to  boiling-point  (212°  F.) 
and  maintained  thereat  for  six  hours. 

In  all  of  the  above  accelerated  tests  the  pats  are  taken  direct 
from  the  hot  water,  and  need  not  remain  in  the  water  until  it 
has  cooled  down. 

Cold  Water  Pats 
(Normal) 

•  Pats  gauged  in  the  usual  manner  are  allowed  to  set  hard  in 
moist  air  and  are  then  placed  in  cold  water  for  some  days. 

Plunge  Pat  Test 

The  pat  is  placed  in  cold  water  immediately  after  gauging,  and 
allowed  to  set  under  water.  It  should  be  left  in  the  water  for  three 
or  four  days,  and  if  satisfactory  will  be  found  to  have  set  hard  and 
adhering  to  the  glass  plate  on  wrhich  it  was  gauged.  This  test  is 
chiefly  prescribed  for  cement  required  for  under-water  work.  Slow- 
setting  cements,  particularly  those  to  which  gypsum  has  been  added 
to  retard  the  set,  will  not  always  stand  this  test. 

The  Bottle  Test 

Cement,  mixed  with  water  to  the  consistency  of  thick  cream,  is 
poured  into  a  test  tube  and  allowed  to  set.  If  it  is  unsound  and 
expansion  occurs  in  the  course  of  a  day  or  two,  the  glass  will  crack 
— or  it  may  contract,  in  which  case  coloured  water  run  into  the 
tube  will  be  seen  to  pass  down  between  the  cement  and  the  glass. 

Air  Pat  Test 

It  sometimes  happens  (more  particularly  with  slow-setting 
cement)  that  a  pat  of  neat  cement,  which  has  been  allowed  to  set  in 
the  air,  develops  cracks  which  may  be  mistaken  for  expansion 
cracks,  but  which  in  reality  are  due  to  contraction.  These  con- 
traction cracks  usually  arise  from  one  or  other  of  the  following 
causes : — 

(1)  An  excessive  quantity  of  water  used  for  gauging. 

(2)  Pat  having  been  placed  on  wood  or  other  absorbent  material 

which  withdraws  the  water  required  for  setting  the  cement. 

(3)  Pat  having  been  exposed  to  a  current  of  air  during  setting. 

(4)  Pat  having  been  exposed  to  sunlight  or  to  a  fire,  gas-jet,  or 

other  heating  agent  during  setting. 


152 


THE    POETLAND    CEMENT    INDUSTRY 


FIG.  1. 

Fig.  1  shows  a  pat  which  has  satisfactorily  passed  the  test. 


FIG.  2. 

Fig.  2  shows  shrinkage  cracks. 

These  are  usually  caused  by  the  use  of  too  wet  a  mixture  or 
produced  by  too  great  rapidity  of  drying.  Dry  air  will  usually 
produce  this  effect,  so  that  such  cracks  indicate  improper  manipu- 
lation and  not  dangerous  properties  in  the  cement. 


FIG.  3. 

Fig.  3  shows  cracks  caused  by  the  curling  of  the  edges  of  the 
cement  away  from  the  glass  while  the  pat  still  adheres. 

This  condition  is  common  in  air  pats  and  is  not  dangerous 
unless  extreme  in  character.  It  should  not  occur  in  water  pats. 
If  such  cracks  are  found  in  water  pats  they  denote  the  existence  of 
qualities  which  should  ordinarily  condemn  the  sample. 

If  a  pat  is  blotched,  special  consideration  should  be  given  to  its 
cause,  which  may  be  either  adulteration  or  underburning. 


FIG.  4. 


Fig.  4  shows  pats  which  have  left  the  glass  because  of  sufficient 
adhesion,  contraction,  and  expansion  respectively. 


SOUNDNESS    OR    CONSTANCY    OF    VOLUME          153 

The  mere  lack  of  adhesion  in  either  air  or  water  pats  is  not 
dangerous. 

A  curvature  greater  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  caused  by 
expansion  or  contraction  should  be  sufficient  to  condemn  the 
sample.  Occasionally  the  glass  will  be  cracked  while  the  cement 
pat  still  adheres  to  it.  This  is  not  usually  indicative  of  poor 
quality. 


FIG.  5. 


Fig.  5  shows  the  radial  cracks  incident  to  incipient  disintegra- 
tion.   Such  cracks  should  always  warrant  rejection  of  the  sample. 


FIG.  6. 

Fig.  6  shows  examples  of  complete  disintegration,  which  started 
as  indicated  in  Fig.  5. 


GENEEAL     INDEX 


A  EEO  pulverizer,  46 

American  pre-eminence  in  Port- 
land Cement  industry,  6 

Aspdin  (Joseph),  first  used  the  term 
"Portland  Cement",   3 

his  factory  at  Wakefield,  4 

Atlas  Portland  Cement  Company,  40 


T)  ALL  and  tube  mills,  24 
Barrage  at  Assiout,  6 
Big  hole  blasting  drills,  17 
Bradley  three-roll  mill,  28 

Brunei,    used    cement    for   Thames 
Tunnel,  4 


/CAPACITY   of    various    machines 
^  used      for      crushing, 

grinding,  and  convey- 
ing, 33-8 

ball   mills    (preliminary 

mill  dry  grinding),  36 

belt   conveyors,    37 

bucket    elevators     with 

gearing,   38 

crushing  rolls,   34 

flint   pebble   tube  mills 

(finishing     mill      dry 
grinding),  £6 

gyratory  crushers,  33 

large   jaw   crushers,    34 

screw  conveyors,   37 

small   jaw  crushers,    34 

eteel     ball    mills     (wet 

grinding),   35 

steel     ball     tube     mills 

(wet  grinding),   35 

steel    ball    tube     mills 

(preliminary  mill  dry 
grinding),  36 


Centrifugal  ball  mill,  29 
Chemical  composition,    123-8 

British  standard  specifica- 

tion, 123 

specific  gravity,   124 

test  of  little   value  alone, 

124 

Comparative  table  of   English  and 
metric  measures,  122 

of   English   and   metric 

weights,  122 

of  English  and  metrical 

stresses,  121 

Costs  and  statistics,    82-108 

—  cement   production    and    ship- 

ments during  1914  (U.S.A.), 
87 

—  labour  costs  per  ton  of  cement, 

83 

—  plant,  83 

—  specimens    of    daily     reports, 

returns,    etc.,   90-108 

—  systematic   cost  keeping,    88 
Crushers,  types  of,  22 


~T\ESIGN  and  construction  of 
a  modern  Portland 
Cement  plant,  14-38 

comparative  cost  data,  18 

quarry  practice,  16 

site,  14 

size   of   plant,    15 

Development    of    Portland    Cement 
industry,  6-7 


"U  BISON'S  remarkable  influence  on 
*J    the  industry,  40 

Elkinson     (W.      B.),     patent     for 
making  concrete,  4 


156 


THE   PORTLAND   CEMENT  INDUSTRY 


Equipment,   carpenters  and  wheel- 
wrights, 81 

machine  shop,  80 

mechanical,    80 

of  plants  erected 

during  last  five 
years,  109-16 

smithy,  81 


JiINENESS,  129-33 

British  standard  speci- 

fication, 129 

—         determinations  by 

different  experts,  133 

effect  of  fine  grinding 

of  cement  on  sound- 
ness,  132 

increase        in        sand 

strength  due  to  fine 
grinding,  123 

influence  on  fine  grind- 

ing of  cement  upon 
its  setting  time,  132 

limitation  of  the  sieve 

test,  130 

Francis  &  White   (Messrs.),  manu- 
factory at  Nine  Elms,  4 

Frost  (James),  patent  for  "British 
Cement",  3 

Fuller-Lehigh  pulverizer  mill,  29 

crushing,  30 

preliminary   preparation   of 

material  for  mill  feed,  30 


HISTORY  of  the  Portland  Cement 
industry,  3-5 


JOHNSON     (I.     C.),     manufactory 
at  Gateshead,   4 


TVT  ANUFACTURE,  8-13 

composition  and  manu- 

facture of  cement, 
10 

synopsis   of,    from   the 

raw  material  to 
Portland  Cement, 
10 

burning     of    raw 

materials  to  in- 
cipient fusion, 
10 

cooling     and 

grinding  the 
clinker,  10 

crushing,     giind- 

ing,  and  mix- 
ing of  raw 
materials,  10 

—  definition:  — 

British  stand- 
ard specifica- 
tion,  10  ; 
American  and 
German  stand- 
ard specifica- 
tions, 11 

quarry,  10 

—  wet  and  dry  pro- 

cesses,   10-13 


Q.AUGING  cement,  118 

Germany,  production  in,  7 
Gilmore  needle,  143 

Great  Britain's  position  in  the  Port- 
land Cement  industry,  1-2 

Great  Exhibition,  gave  impetus  to 
the  industry,  5 

Griffin  mills,  26 

40  in.  giant  Griffin  mill,  27 

Grinding,  23 


N 


ILE  Dam  at  Assouan, 


pACKING,  79 

Panama  Canal,  6 
Parker        (James),       patent       for 

"terras",  3 
Pasley   (General),  applied  name  of 

"  Roman  Cement  ",  3 


GENERAL   INDEX 


157 


Pasley    (General),    experiments    and 
research  work  in  Kent,  4 

Physical  testing,   117-53 
Power  plants,  51-77 

boiler  plant,  66 

choice  of  power  units,  62 

—  feed  pumps,  68 

importance    of   selection,    51 

methods  of  driving,  55 

steam  and  feed-water  pipes, 

73 
superheaters,  76 

type  of  power  plant,  59 

types  of  transmission,  55 

water  supply,  56 

treatment!    of    impuri- 

ties, 57 


"DAW  materials,  8-13 

alkali  waste,   8 

blast-furnace  slag,  9 

chalk,   8 

clay,  9 

clayey    limestone,    8 

crushing,   21 

grinding,   23 

limestone,    8 

marl,  8 

proportioning,  9 

shale,  9 

storage,    19 

Eotary  kiln,   39-50 

construction,    41 

dust  collectors,  49 

fuel,  45 

—    coal,    its    etoragej, 

drying,     and 
grinding,    45 

—    cooling,        storing, 

and  grinding  the 
clinker,  48 

—    crude  oil,  47 

—    natural  gas,  48 

—    producer  gas,  48 


Kotary  kiln,  idea  of  rotating  furnace 
first  conceived  by 
Crampton,  40 

• lining,  43 

output  in  United  States 

before       and       after 
establishment  of 

rotary  kiln,  40 

Ransome's  patent,   40 


CACK  department,  79 

Sheppard    (Samuel),    his    works 
at  Faversham,  4 

Smeaton's  experiments,   3 

Soundness  or  constancy  of  volume, 
148-53 

accelerated  tests,   148 

air  pat  test,  151 

boiling  test,  151 

bottle  test,  151 

cold-water   pats,    151 

—  Deval  test,  150 

—  Faija  test,  150 

—  Le  Chatelier  test,   149 

normal  tests,  148 

plunge  pat  test,  151 

Stephenson,  pointed  out  the  excel- 
lence of  cement,  4 

Storage,  78 

Sturtevant  Patent  Air  Filter,  50 

Patent  Dust  Collector,  50 

.     "ring   roll"   mill,    31 

"  open  door  "  ac- 

cessibility, 32 

"Steel    Plate"    Dust-col- 

lecting Fan,  .50 


rp  ENSILE  strength,  134-8 

British  standard  specifi- 

cation,  134 

proportion  of  water  for 

gauging      sand       bri- 
quettes,   136 

Testing  of  cement,  development  of, 
117 


158 


THE  PORTLAND   CEMENT  INDUSTRY 


Testing  required  for  immediate  use, 
120 

Time  of  setting,   139-47 

British    standard    specifica- 

tion, 139 

-    determinations  by  different 
experts,    145,    147 

effect  of  dead  burned  gyp- 

sum on  the  setting  time, 
146 

effect  of  gypsum  on  the  set- 

ting time,  145 

effect  of  plaster  of  Paris  on 

the  setting  time,    144 


Time  of  setting :  effect  of  storage  of 
Portland  Cement  on  its 
setting  properties,  143 

influence   of  ageing   on  the 

set,    146 

influence  of  temperature  on 

the  rate  of   setting,   145 

influence  of  various  percent- 

ages of  water  used  to 
gauge  the  pats  on  the 
setting  time,  144 


yiCAT  needle,   140 


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Broughton,  H.  H.  Electric  Cranes  and  Hoists. *g  oo 

Brown,  G.  Healthy  Foundations.  (Science  Series  No.  80.). i6mo,  o  50 

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Brown,  H.  Rubber 8vo,  *2  oo 

Brown,  Wm.  N.  The  Art  of  Enamelling  on  Metal i2mo,  *i  oo 

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Browne,  C.  L.  Fitting  and  Erecting  of  Engines 8vo,  *i  50 

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Bruhns,  Dr.  New  Manual  of  Logarithms 8vo,  cloth,  2  oo 

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Gary,  E.  R.    Solution  of  Railroad  Problems  With  the  Use  of 

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Casler,  M.  D.     Simplified  Reinforced  Concrete  Mathematics, 

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Cathcart,  W.  L.    Machine  Design.    Part  I.    Fastenings ...  8vo,  *3.  oo 
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Chambers'  Mathematical  Tables 8vo,  i  75 

Chambers,   G.  F.     Astronomy •. i6mo,  *i  50 

Chappel,  E.    Five  Figure  Mathematical  Tables 8vo,  *2  oo 

Charnock.     Mechanical   Technology 8vo,  *3  oo 

Charpentier,   P.     Timber 8vo,  *6  oo 

Chatley,  H.    Principles  and  Designs  of  Aeroplanes.    (Science 

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Church's  Laboratory  Guide.    Rewritten  by  Edward  Kinch .  8vo,  *2  50 

Clapperton,  G.     Practical  Papermaking 8vo,  250 

Clark,  A.  G.    Motor  Car  Engineering. 

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Clark,  J.  M.    New  System  of  Laying  Out  Railway  Turnouts, 

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Clerk,    D.,   and   Hell,   F.    E.     Theory    of    the   Gas   Engine. 

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Clevenger,   S.   R.     Treatise   on   the  Method   of   Government 

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Coffin,  J.  H.  C.    Navigation  and  Nautical  Astronomy.  .i2mo,  *3  50 
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Comstock,  D.  F.,  and  Troland,  L.  T.    The  Nature  of  Matter 

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Coombs,  H.  A.     Gear  Teeth.     (Science  Series  No.  120). .  .i6mo,  o  50 

Cooper,  W.  R.     Primary  Batteries 8vo,  *4  oo 

Copperthwaite,  W.  C.     Tunnel  Shields 4to,  *9  oo 

Corfield,  W.  H.  Dwelling  Houses.  (Science  Series  No.  50.)  i6mo,  o  50 

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Cornwall,  H.  B.     Manual  of  Blow-pipe  Analysis 8vo,  *2  50 

Cowee,  G.  A.    Practical  Safety  Methods  and  Devices ....  8vo,  *s  oo 

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Craig,  J.  W.,  and  Woodward,  W.  P.    Questions  and  Answers 

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Craig,  T.     Motion  of  a  Solid  in  a  Fuel.     (Science  Series  No.  49.) 

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Cramp,  W.     Continuous  Current  Machine  Design. 8vo,  *2  50 

Greedy,  F.  Single-Phase  Commutator  Motors 8vo,  *2  oo 

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Crosskey,   L.   R.     Elementary   Perspective 8vo,  i  oo 

Crosskey,  L.  R.,  and  Thaw,  J.     Advanced  Perspective 8vo,  i  50 

Culley,  J.  L.    Theory  of  Arches.    (Science  Series  No.  87.) .  i6mo,  o  50 

Gushing,  H.  C.,  Jr.,  and  Harrison,  N.     Central  Station  Man- 
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Deerr,  N.    Sugar  Cane 8vo,  7  oo 

Deite,  C.     Manual  of  Soapmaking.     Trans,  by  S.  T.  King . .  4to,  *5  oo 
De  la  Coux,  H.     The  Industrial  Uses  of  Water.     Trans,  by  A. 

Morris 8vo,  *4  50 

Del  Mar,  W.  A.     Electric  Power  Conductors 8vo,  *2  oo 

Denny,  G.  A.     Deep-Level  Mines  of  the  Rand 4to,  *io  oo 

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De  Roos,  J.  D.  C.     Linkages.     (Science  Series  No.  47.). . .  i6mo,  o  50 

Derr,  W.  L.     Block  Signal  Operation Oblong  i2mo,  *i  50 

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Desaint,  A.     Three  Hundred  Shades  and  How  to  Mix  Them. 

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Dichman,  C.    Basic  Open-Hearth  Steel  Process 8vo,  *3  50 

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Dixon,  D.  B.     Machinist's  and  Steam  Engineer's  Practical  Cal- 
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Draper,    C.    H.     Elementary   Text-book    of    Light,    Heat   and 

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Dyson,  S.  S.  Practical  Testing  of  Raw  Materials 8vo,  *5  oo 

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Eccles,  W.  H.     Wireless  Telegraphy  and  Telephony.  .i2mo,    *4  50 
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Johnson,  J.  H.    Arc  Lamps  and  Accessory  Apparatus.     (In- 
stallation Manuals  Series.) i2mo,  *o  75 

Johnson,    T.    M.      Ship    Wiring    and    Fitting.       (Installation 

Manuals  Series.)    i2mo,  *o  75 

Johnson,  W.  McA.     The  Metallurgy  of  Nickel (In  Preparation.) 

Johnston,  J.  F.  W.,  and  Cameron,  C.     Elements  of  Agricultural 

Chemistry  and  Geology i2mo,  2  60 

Joly,  J.     Radioactivity  and  Geology i2mo,  *3  oo 

Jones,  H.  C.     Electrical  Nature  of  Matter  and  Radioactivity 

I2IHO,  *2    OO 

• Nature    of    Solution . (In  Press.) 

New  Era  in  Chemistry i2mo,  *2  oo 

Jones,  J.  H.    Tinplate  Industry 8vo,  *3  oo 

Jones,  M.  W.     Testing  Raw  Materials  Used  in  Paint i2mo,  *2  oo 

Jordan,  L.  C.    Practical  Railway  Spiral i2mo,  Leather,  *i  50 


23 

Joynson,  F.  H.     Designing  and  Construction  of  Machine  Gear- 
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Jiiptner,  H.  F.  V.     Siderology:  The  Science  of  Iron 8vo,  *5  oo 

Kapp,  G.     Alternate  Current  Machinery.     (Science  Series  No. 

96.) i6mo,  o  50 

Kapper,  F.     Overhead  Transmission  Lines 4to,  *4  oo 

Keim,  A.  W.     Prevention  of  Dampness  in  Buildings 8vo,  *2  oo 

Keller,  S.  S.     Mathematics  for  Engineering  Students. 

i2mo,  half  leather, 

Algebra  and  Trigonometry,  with  a  Chapter  on  Vectors *i  75 

Plane  and  Solid  Geometry *i  25 

and  Knox,  W.  E.    Analytical  Geometry  and  Calculus..  *2  oo 

Kelsey,  W.    R.      Continuous-current    Dynamos  and  Motors. 

8vo,  *2  50 
Kemble,  W.  T.,  and  Underbill,  C.  R.     The  Periodic  Law  and  the 

Hydrogen  Spectrum 8vo,  paper,  *o  50 

Kemp,  J.  F.     Handbook  of  Rocks 8vo,  *i  50 

Kendall,  E.    Twelve  Figure  Cipher  Code 4to,  *i2  50 

Kennedy,   A.    B.    W.,   and   Thurston,   R.   H.     Kinematics   of 

Machinery.     (Science  Series  No.  54.) i6mo,  o  50 

Kennedy,  A.  B.  W.,  Unwin,  W.  C.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.     Compressed 

Air.     (Science  Series  No.  106.) i6mo,  o  50 

Kennedy,  R.     Modern  Engines  and  Power  Generators.     Six 

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Flying  Machines;  Practice  and  Design i2mo,  *2  oo 

Principles  of  Aeroplane  Construction .8vo,  *i  50 

Kennelly,  A.  E.     Electro-dynamic  Machinery 8vo,  i  50 

Kent,  W.    Strength  of  Materials.     (Science  Series  No.  41.).  i6mo,  050 

Kershaw,  J.  B.  C.     Fuel,  Water  and  Gas  Analysis 8vo,  *2  50 

—  Electrometallurgy.     (Westminster  Series.) .8vo,  *2  oo 

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Kindelan,  J.    Trackman's  Helper i2mo, 


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Kirkaldy,  A.  W.,  and  Evans,  A.  D.  History  and  Economics 

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Kirkham,  J.  E.  Structural  Engineering 8vo,  *5  oo 

Kirkwood,  J.  P.  Filtration  of  River  Waters 4to,  7  50 

Kirschke,  A.  Gas  and  Oil  Engines i2mo.  *i  25 

Klein,  J.  F.  Design  of  a  High  speed  Steam-engine 8vo,  •  *s  oo 

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Klingenberg,  G.  Large  Electric  Power  Stations 4to,  *5  oo 

Knight,  R.-Adm.  A.  M.  Modern  Seamanship 8vo,  *y  50 

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Knott,  C.  G.,  and  Mackay,  J.  S.  Practical  Mathematics  .  .8vo,  2  oo 

Knox,  G.  D.  Spirit  of  the  Soil i2mo,  *i  25 

Knox,  J.     Physico-chemical  Calculations i2mo,  *i  oo 

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Koester,  F.    Steam-Electric  Power  Plants 4to,  *$  oo 

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Koller,  T.    The  Utilization  of  Waste  Products 8vo,  *s  oo 

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Koppe,  S.  W.    Glycerine i2mo,  *2  50 

Kozmin,  P.  A.    Flour  Milling.     Trans,  by  M.  Falkner. . .  8vo, 

(In  Press.} 
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Technical    Processes    and    Manufacturing    Methods. 

Trans,  by  H.  E.  Potts 8vo,  *2  50 

Kretchmar,  K.  Yarn  and  Warp  Sizing 8vo,  *4  oo 

Lallier,  E.  V.    Elementary  Manual  of  the  Steam  Engine. 

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Lambert,  T.     Lead  and  its  Compounds 8vo,  *3  50 

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C.  Salter 8vo,  *4  oo 

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Lanchester,  F.  W.    Aerial  Flight.    Two  Volumes.    8vo. 

Vol.   I.    Aerodynamics   *6  oo 

Vol.  II.    Aerodonetics *6  oo 

The  Flying  Machine (In  Press.) 

Lange,  K.  R.     By- Products  of  Coal-Gas  Manufacture.  .i2mo,  2  oo 

Lamer,  E.  T.    Principles  of  Alternating  Currents i2mo,  *i  25 

La  Rue,  B.  F.     Swing  Bridges.     (Science  Series  No.  107.) .  i6mo,  o  50 
Lassar-Cohn,  Dr.     Modern  Scientific  Chemistry.     Trans,  by  M. 

M.  Pattison  Muir i2mo,  *2  oo 

Latimer,  L.  H.,  Field,  C.  J.,  and  Howell,  J.  W.     Incandescent 

Electric  Lighting.     (Science  Series  No.  57.) i6mo,  o  50 

Latta,  M.  N.     Handbook  of  American  Gas-Engineering  Practice. 

8vo,  *4  50 

American  Producer  Gas  Practice 4to,  *6  oo 

Laws,  B.  C.  Stability  and  Equilibrium  of  Floating  Bodies.8vo,  *3  50 
Lawson,  W.  R.    British  Railways,  a  Financial  and  Commer- 
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Refrigerating  Machinery i2mo,  2  oo 

Lecky,  S.  T.  S.    "Wrinkles"  in  Practical  Navigation 8vo,  *io  oo 

Le  Doux,  M.     ice-Making  Machines.     (Science  Series  No.  46.) 

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Leeds,  C.  C.  Mechanical  Drawing  for  Trade  Schools .  oblong  4to,  *2  oo 

Mechanical  Drawing  for  High  and  Vocational  Schools, 

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Robson 8vo  *2  50 

Lemstrom,  S.     Electricity  in  Agriculture  and  Horticulture ..  8vo,  *i  50 

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Lewes,  V.  B.    Liquid  and  Gaseous  Fuels.    ( Westminster  Series. ) 

8vo,  *2  oo 

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Lewis,  L.  P.     Railway  Signal  Engineering 8vo,  *3  50 

Licks,  H.  E.     Recreations  in  Mathematics i2mo,  i  25 

Lieber,  B.  F.    Lieber's  Five  Letter  Standard  Telegraphic  Code, 

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Bankers    and    Stockbrokers'    Code    and    Merchants    and 

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Lieber,  B.  F.     100,000,000  Combination  Code 8vo,  *io  oo 

Engineering  Code 8vo,  *i2  50 

Livermore,  V.  P.,  and  Williams,  J.     How  to  Become  a  Com- 
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Livingstone,  R.   Design  and  Construction  of  Commutators .  8vo,    *2  25 

Mechanical  Design  and  Construction  of  Generators . . .  8vo,    *3  50 

Lloyd,  S.  L.    Fertilizer  Materials (In  Press.} 

Lobben,  P.     Machinists'  and  Draftsmen's  Handbook  ....   .8vo,       2  50 
Lockwood,  T.  D.     Electricity,  Magnetism,  and  Electro-teleg- 
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Electrical  Measurement  and  the  Galvanometer. . . . i2mo,      o  75 

Lodge,  O.  J.     Elementary  Mechanics i2mo,       i  50 

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Loewenstein,  L.  C.,  and  Crissey,  C.  P.  Centrifugal  Pumps. .     *4  50 

Lomax,  J.  W.    Cotton  Spinning i2mo,      i  50 

Lord,  R.  T.     Decorative  and  Fancy  Fabrics 8vo,     *3  50 

Loring,  A.  E.    A  Handbook  of  the  Electromagnetic  Telegraph, 

i6mo,      o  50 

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Lovell,  D.  H.    Practical  Switchwork.    Revised  by  Strong  and 

Whitney   (In  Press.} 


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Lubschez,  B.  J.    Perspective i2mo,     *i  50 

Lucke,  C.  E.     Gas  Engine  Design 8vo,     *3  oo 

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Luckiesh,  M.     Color  and  Its  Application 8vo,    *3  oo 

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In  two  parts *i5  oo 

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Technical   Methods   of   Chemical   Analysis.     Trans,   by 

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Technical  Gas  Analysis 8vo,    *4  oo 

Luquer,  L.  M.     Minerals  in  Rock  Sections. 8vo,     *i  50 

Macaulay,    J.,    and    Hall,    C.      Modern    Railway    Working. 

Eight  vols 4to,  20  oc 

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Macewen,  H.  A.     Food  Inspection 8vo,  *2  50 

Mackenzie,  N.  F.     Notes  on  Irrigation  Works 8vo,  *2  50 

Mackie,  J.     How  to  Make  a  Woolen  Mill  Pay 8vo,  *2  oo 

Maguire,  Wm.  R.     Domestic  Sanitary  Drainage  and  Plumbing 

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Malcolm,  H.  W.     Submarine  Telegraph  Cable  ..........  (In  Press.") 

Mallet,    A.     Compound    Engines.     Trans,    by    R.    R.    Buel. 
(Science  Series  No.  10.)  .........  .............  i6mo, 

Mansfield,  A.  N.     Electro-magnets.     (Science  Series  No.  64) 

i6mo,  o  50 
Marks,  E.  C.  R.     Construction  of  Cranes  and  Lifting  Machinery 

i2mo,  *i  50 

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Marks,  G.  C.     Hydraulic  Power  Engineering  .............  8vo,  3  50 

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Marlow,  T.  G.     Drying  Machinery  and  Practice  ...........  8vo,  *5  oo 

Marsh,  C.  F.     Concise  Treatise  on  Reinforced  Concrete..  .  .8vo,  *2  50 

Marsh,  C.  F.     Reinforced    Concrete    Compression    Member 

Diagram  Mounted  on  Cloth  Boards  .................     *i  50 

Marsh,  C.  F.,  and  Dunn,  W.    Manual  of  Reinforced  Concrete 

and  Concrete  Block  Construction  ..........  i6mo,  mor.,    *2  50 

Marshall,  W.J.,  and  Sankey,  H.  R.    Gas  Engines.    (Westminster 

Series.)  .....................................  8vo,     *2  oo 

Martin,  G.    Triumphs  and  Wonders  of  Modern  Chemistry.   1 

8vo,     *2  oo 

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Martin,  N.     Properties  and  Design  of  Reinforced   Concrete, 


Martin,  W.  D.    Hints  to  Engineers  ....................  12010,    *i  oo 

Massie,  W.  W.,  and  Underbill,  C.  R.     Wireless  Telegraphy  and 

Telephony  ................................  121110,  *i  oo 

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Maxwell,  J.  C.     Matter  and  Motion.     (Science  Series  No.  36.) 

i6mo,  o  50 
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and  Sanitary  Engineering.  .  ...................  .'410,  *io  oo 

Mayer,  A.  M.    Lecture  Notes  on  Physics  ................  8vo,  2  oo 


29 

McCullough,   E.     Practical   Surveying i2mo,  *2  oo 

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Reinforced  Concrete   i2mo,  *i  50 

McCullough,  R.  S.     Mechanical  Theory  of  Heat .  8vo,  3  50 

McGibbon,  W.  C.    Indicator  Diagrams  for  Marine  Engineers, 

8vo,  *s  oo 

Marine  Engineers'  Drawing  Book oblong    4to,  *2  oo 

Marine  Engineers'  Pocketbook i2mo,  leather,  *4  oo 

Mclntosh,  J.  G.     Technology  of  Sugar 8vo,  *s  oo 

Industrial  Alcohol 8vo,  *3  oo 

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Vol.  II.     Varnish  Materials  and  Oil  Varnish  Making *4  oo 

Vol.  IE.     Spirit  Varnishes  and  Materials *4  So 

McKnight,   J.   D.,  and  Brown,   A.  W.     Marine   Multitubular 

Boilers *i  50 

McMaster,  J.  B.     Bridge  and  Tunnel  Centres.     (Science  Series 

No.  20.) i6mo,  o  50 

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McPherson,  J.  A.     Water-works  Distribution 8vo,  2  50 

Meade,   R.   K.     Design  and   Equipment  of   Small   Chemical 

Laboratories 8vo, 

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Mensch,  L.  J.    Reinforced  Concrete  Pocket  Book.i6mo,  leather  *4  oo 
Merck,    E.     Chemical    Reagents:    Their    Purity   and   Tests. 

Trans,  by  H.  E.  Schenck 8vo,  i  oo 

Merivale,  J.  H.     Notes  and  Formulae  for  Mining  Students, 

I21T10,  I    5O 

Merritt,  Wm.  H.  Field  Testing  for  Gold  and  Silver .  i6mo,  leather,  i  50 
Mierzinski,  S.     Waterproofing  of  Fabrics.     Trans,  by  A.  Morris 

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Miessner,  B.  F.     Radiodynamics i2mo,  *2  oo 

Miller,  G.  A.    Determinants.     (Science  Series  No.  105.).  .i6mo, 

Miller,  W.  J.     Historical  Geology i2mo,  *2  oo 

Mills,  C.  N.    Elementary  Mechanics  for  Engineers i2mo,  *i  oo 

Milroy,  M.  E.  W.     Home  Lace -making i2mo,  *i  oo 


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Mitchell,  C.  A.    Mineral  and  Aerated  Waters 8vo,    *3  oo 

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Allied  Industries 8vo,     *3  oo 

Mitchell,  C.  F.  and  G.  A.    Building  Construction  and  Draw- 
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8vo,  *2  oo 
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Spanish-English  Technical  Terms 641110,  leather,  *  i  oo 

Montgomery,  J.  H.     Electric  Wiring  Specifications. ..  .i6mo,  *i  oo 
Moore,  E.  C.  S.     New  Tables  for  the  Complete  Solution  of 

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Morecroft,  J.  H.,  and  Hehre,  F.  W.    Short  Course  in  Electrical 

Testing    8vo,  *i  50 

Morgan,  A.  P.    Wireless  Telegraph  Apparatus  for  Amateurs, 

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Moses,  A.  J.     The  Characters  of  Crystals 8vo,  *2  oo 

and  Parsons,  C.  L.     Elements  of  Mineralogy 8vo, 

Moss,    S.    A.     Elements    of    Gas    Engine    Design.     (Science 

Series  No.   121 ) i6mo,  o  50 

The  Lay-out  of  Corliss  Valve   Gears.     (Science  Series 

No.   1 19.)    i6mo,  o  50 

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Mullin,  J.  P.     Modern  Moulding  and  Pa ttern- making .  .  .  .  i2mo,  2  50 
Munby,  A.  E.     Chemistry  and  Physics  of  Building  Materials. 

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Murphy,  J.  G.     Practical  Mining i6mo,  i   oo 

Murphy,  W.  S.    Textile  Industries,  8  vols *2o  oo 

(Sold   separately.)    each,  *3  oo 

Murray,  J.  A.     Soils  and  Manures.     (Westminster  Series.). 8 vo,  *2  oo 

Nasmith,  J.     The  Student's  Cotton  Spinning 8vo,  3  oo 

Recent  Cotton  Mill   Construction i2mo,  2  50 

Neave,  G.  B.,  and  Heilbron,  I.  M.    Identification  of  Organic 

Compounds i2mo,  *i  25 


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Neilson,  R.  M.     Aeroplane  Patents 8vo,  *2  oo 

Nerz,  F.     Searchlights.     Trans,  by  C.  Rodgers 8vo,  *3  oo 

Neuberger,   H.,  and  Noalhat,  H.     Technology  of  Petroleum. 

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Newall,  J.  W.  Drawing,  Sizing  and  Cutting  Bevel-gears.  .8 vo,  i  50 
Newbiging,  T.  Handbook  for  Gas  Engineers  and  Managers, 

8vo,  *6  50 
Newell,  F.  H.,  and  Drayer,  C.  E.     Engineering  as  a  Career. 

i2mo,  cloth,  *i  oo 

paper,  o  75 

Nicol,  G.     Ship  Construction  and  Calculations. 8vo,  *4  50 

Nipher,  F.  E.     Theory  of  Magnetic  Measurements i2mo,  i  oo 

Nisbet,  H.     Grammar  of  Textile  Design 8vo,  *3  oo 

Nolan,  H.     The  Telescope.     (Science  Series  No.  51.) i6mo,  o  50 

North,  H.  B.    Laboratory  Experiments  in  General  Chemistry 

1 2 mo,  *i  oo 

Nugent,  E.     Treatise  on  Optics i2mo,  i  50 

O'Connor,  H.  The  Gas  Engineer's  Pocketbook. .  .  i2mo,  leather,  3  50 
Ohm,  G.  S.,  and  Lockwood,  T.  D.  Galvanic  Circuit.  Trans,  by 

William  Francis.  (Science  Series  No.  102.).  .  .  .  i6mo,  o  50 

Olsen,  J.  C.  Textbook  of  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis.  .8vo,  *3  50 
Olsson,  A.  Motor  Control,  in  Turret  Turning  and  Gun  Elevating. 

(U.  S.  Navy  Electrical  Series,  No.  i.) .  ...i2mo,  paper,  *o  50 

Ormsby,  M.  T.  M.  Surveying i2mo,  i  50 

Oudin,  M.  A.  Standard  Polyphase  Apparatus  and  Systems  . .  8  vo,  *3  oo 

Owen,  D.  Recent  Physical  Research 8vo,  *i  50 

Pakes,  W.  C.  C.,  and  Nankivell,  A.  T.    The  Science  of  Hygiene. 

8vo,  *i  75 
Palaz,  A.     Industrial  Photometry.     Trans,  by  G.  W.  Patterson, 

Jr 8vo,  *4  oo 

Pamely,  C.     Colliery  Manager's  Handbook 8vo,  *io  oo 

Parker,  P.  A.  M.    The  Control  of  Water 8vo,  *s  oo 

Parr,  G.  D.  A.     Electrical  Engineering  Measuring  Instruments. 

8vo,  *3  50 

Parry,  E.  J.     Chemistry  of  Essential  Oils  and  Artificial  Per- 
fumes  8vo,  *5  oo 


32     D.   VAN    NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Parry,  E.  J.     Foods  and  Drugs.     Two  Volumes 8vo. 

Vol.   I.     Chemical  and  Microscopical  Analysis  of  Food 

and  Drugs *7  50 

Vol.  II.     Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts *3  oo 

and  Coste,  J.  H.     Chemistry  of  Pigments 8vo,  *4  50 

Parry,  L.     Notes  on  Alloys ,  ... 8vo,  *3  oo 

.  Metalliferous  Wastes   8vo,  *z  oo 

Analysis  of  Ashes  and  Alloys 8vo,  *2  oo 

Parry,  L.  A.     Risk  and  Dangers  of  Various  Occupations 8vo,  *3  oo 

Parshall,  H.  F.,  and  Hobart,  H.  M.     Armature  Windings  ....  4to,  *7  50 

—  Electric  Railway  Engineering 4to,  *io  oo 

Parsons,  J.  L.    Land  Drainage 8vo,  *i  50 

Parsons,  S.  J.     Malleable  Cast  Iron 8vo,  *2  50 

Partington,  J.  R.    Higher  Mathematics  for  Chemical  Students 

i2mo,  *2  oo 

Textbook  of  Thermodynamics 8vo,  *4  oo 

Passmore,  A.  C.     Technical  Terms  Used  in  Architecture  ...8vo,  *3  50 

Patchell,  W.  H.     Electric  Power  in  Mines 8vo,  *4  oo 

Paterson,  G.  W.  L.    Wiring  Calculations i2mo,  *2  oo 

—  Electric  Mine  Signalling  Installations i2mo,  *i  50 

Patterson,  D.     The  Color  Printing  of  Carpet  Yarns 8vo,  *3  50 

—  Color  Matching  on  Textiles 8vo,  *3  oo 

Textile  Color  Mixing 8vo,  *3  oo 

Paulding,  C.  P.     Condensation  of  Steam  in  Covered  and  Bare 

Pipes 8vo,  *2  oo 

Transmission  of  Heat  Through  Cold-storage  Insulation 

1 2 mo,  *i  oo 

Payne,  D.  W.    Founders'  Manual (In  Press.} 

Peckham,  S.  P.     Solid  Bitumens .8vo,  *s  oo 

Peddie,  R.  A.    Engineering  and  Metallurgical  Books. . .  .  i2mo,  *i  50 

Peirce,  B.     System  of  Analytic  Mechanics 4to,  10  oo 

Linnear  Associative   Algebra 4to,  3  oo 

Pendred,  V.     The  Railway  Locomotive.     (Westminster  Series.) 

8vo,  *2  oo 

Perkin,  F.  M.     Practical  Method  of  Inorganic  Chemistry . .  i  mo,  *i  oo 

and  Jaggers,  E.  M.     Elementary  Chemistry :  2mo,  *i  oo 

Perrine,  F.  A.  C.     Conductors  for  Electrical  Distribution  .  . .  8vo,  *3  50 


D.   VAN   NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S   SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG     33 

Petit,  G.     White  Lead  and  Zinc  White  Paints 8vo,  *  i  50 

Petit,  R.     How  to  Build  an  Aeroplane.     Trans,   by  T.  O'B. 

Hubbard,  and  J.  H.  Ledeboer 8vo,  *  i  50 

Pettit,  Lieut.  J.  S.     Graphic  Processes.     (Science  Series  No.  76.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Philbrick,  P.  H.     Beams  and  Girders.     (Science  Series  No*  88.) 

i6mo, 

Phillips,  J.     Gold  Assaying 8vo,  *2  50 

—  Dangerous  Goods 8vo,  3  50 

Phin,  J.     Seven  Follies  of  Science I2mo,  *i   25 

Pickworth,  C.  N.     The  Indicator  Handbook.     Two  Volumes 

i2mo,  each,  i  50 

—  Logarithms  for  Beginners I2mo,  boards,  o  50 

—  The  Slide  Rule i2mo,  i  oo 

Planner's  Manual  of    Blowpipe  Analysis.     Eighth  Edition,  re- 
vised,    trans,  by  H.  B.  Cornwall 8vo,  *4  oo 

Plympton,  G.W.  The  Aneroid  Barometer.  (Science  Series. ).i6mo,  o  50 

—  How  to  become  an  Engineer.     (Science  Series  No.  100.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Van  Nostrand's  Table  Book.     (Science  Series  No.  104). 

i6mo,  o  50 

Pochet,  M.  L.     Steam  Injectors.     Translated  from  the  French. 

(Science  Series  No.  29.) i6mo,  o  50 

Pocket  Logarithms  to  Four  Places.     (Science  Series.) i6mo,  o  50 

bather,  i  oo 

Polleyn,  F.    Dressings  and  Finishings  for  Textile  Fabrics .  8vo,  *3  oo 

Pope,  F.  G.    Organic  Chemistry i2mo,  *2  25 

Pope,  F.  L.     Modern  Practice  of  the  Electric  Telegraph. .  .   8vo,  i  50 

Popplewell,  W.  C.    Prevention  of  Smoke 8vo,  *3  50 

-Strength  of  Materials 8vo,  *i  75 

Porritt,  B.  D.     The  Chemistry  of  Rubber.     (Chemical  Mono- 
graphs,   No.    3.) i2mo,  *o  75 

Porter,  J.  R.    Helicopter  Flying  Machine i2mo,  *i  25 

Potts,  H.  E.  Chemistry  of  the  Rubber  Industry.     (Outlines  of 

Industrial  Chemistry.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Practical  Compounding  of  Oils,  Tallow  and  Grease 8vo,  *3  50 


34     IX   VAX   NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Pratt,  K.     Boiler  Draught izmo,  *i  25 

—  High   Speed   Steam   Engines 8vo,  *2  oo 

Pray,  T.,  Jr.     Twenty  Years  with  the  Indicator 8vo,  2  50 

—  Steam  Tables  and  Engine  Constant 8vo,  2  oo 

Prelini,  C.     Earth  and  Rock  Excavation 8vo,  *3  oo 

Graphical  Determination  of  Earth  Slopes 8vo,  *2  oo 

—  Tunneling.      New    Edition 8vo,  *3  oo 

—  Dredging.     A  Practical  Treatise 8vo,  *3  oo 

Prescott,  A.  B.     Organic  Analysis 8vo,  5  oo 

—  and  Johnson,  0.  C.    Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis .  8vo,  *3  50 

—  and  Sullivan,  E.  C.    First  Book  in  Qualitative  Chemistry 

1 2 mo,  *i  50 

Prideaux,  E.  B.  R.     Problems  in  Physical  Chemistry 8vo,  *2  oo 

Primrose,  G.  S.  C.     Zinc.     (Metallurgy  Series.) (In  Press.) 

Prince,  G.  T.    Flow  of  Water i2mo,  *2  oo 

Pullen,  W.  W.  F.     Application  of  Graphic  Methods  to  the  Design 

of  Structures i2mo,  *2  50 

—  Injectors:  Theory,  Construction  and  Working i2mo,  *i  50 

—  Indicator  Diagrams   8vo,  *2  50 

—  Engine    Testing    8vo,  *4  50 

Pulsifer,  W.  H.     Notes  for  a  History  of  Lead 8vo,  4  oo 

Putsch,  A.     Gas  and  Coal-dust  Firing 8vo,  *3  oo 

Pynchon,  T.  R.     Introduction  to  Chemical  Physics •  8vo,  3  oo 

Rafter,  G.  W.     Mechanics  of  Ventilation.     (Science  Series  No. 

33.) i6mo,  o  50 

—  Potable  Water.     (Science  Series  No.  103.) i6mo,  o  50 

Treatment  of  Septic  Sewage.     (Science  Series  No.  118.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

—  and  Baker,  M.  N.    Sewage  Disposal  in  the  United  States 

4to,  *6  oo 

Raikes,  H.  P.     Sewage  Disposal  Works. 8vo,  *4  oo 

Randau,  P.     Enamels  and  Enamelling 8vo,  *4  oo 

Rankine,  W.  J.  M.     Applied  Mechanics ... 8vo,  5  oo 

—  Civil  Engineering 8vo,  6  50 

—  Machinery  and  Millwork 8vo,  5  oo 

—  The  Steam-engine  and  Other  Prime  Movers 8vo,  5  oo 

—  and  Bamber,  E.  F.     A  Mechanical  Textbook 8vo,  3  50 


D.   VAN    XOSTRAND  COMPANY^  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG     35 

Ransome,  W.  R.    Freshman  Mathematics i2mo,    *i  35 

Raphael,  F.  C.     Localization  of    Faults  in  Electric  Light  and 

Power    Mains 8vo,    *3  50 

Rasch,  E.     Electric  Arc  Phenomena.     Trans,  by  K.  Tornberg. 

8vo,     *2  oo 

Rathbone,  R.  L.  B.     Simple  Jewellery. 8vo,     *2  oo 

Rateau,   A.     Flow  of  Steam  through  Nozzles    and:   Orifices. 

Trans,  by  H.  B.  Brydon 8vo,     *i  50 

Rausenberger,  F.    The  Theory  of  the  Recoil  of  Guns 8vo,    *4  50 

Rautenstrauch,  W.     Notes  on  the  Elements  of  Machine  Design, 

8vo,  boards,     *i  50 

Rautenstrauch,  W.,  and  Williams,  J.  T.     Machine  Drafting  and 
Empirical  Design. 

Part   I.  Machine  Drafting 8vo,     *i  25 

Part  II.  Empirical  Design (In  Preparation.) 

Raymond,  E.  B.     Alternating  Current  Engineering i2mo,    *2  50 

Rayner,  H.    Silk  Throwing  and  Waste  Silk  Spinning.  ..8vo,    *2  50 
Recipes  for  the  Color,  Paint,  Varnish,  Oil,  Soap  and  Drysaltery 

Trades    8vo,    *s  50 

Recipes  for  Flint  Glass  Making i2mo,    *4  50 

Redfern,  J.  B.,  and  Savin,  J.     Bells,  Telephones.     (Installa- 
tion Manuals  Series.) i6mo,    *o  50 

Redgrove,  H.  S.    Experimental  Mensuration i2mo,    *i  25 

Redwood,  B.    Petroleum.     (Science  Series  No.  92.) .  . .  .i6mo,      o  50 

Reed,  S.     Turbines  Applied  to  Marine  Propulsion *5  oo 

Reed's  Engineers'  Handbook 8vo,    *5  oo 

—  Key    to    the    Nineteenth    Edition    of    Reed's    Engineers' 

Handbook 8vo,    *3  oo 

Useful  Hints  to  Sea-going  Engineers i2mo,       i  50 

Reid,  E.  E.    Introduction  to  Research  in  Organic  Chemistry. 

(In  Press.) 

Reid,  H.  A.    Concrete  and  Reinforced  Concrete  Construction, 

8vo, 
Reinhardt,  C.  W.     Lettering  for  Draftsmen,  Engineers,  and 

Students oblong  4to,  boards,      i  oo 

The  Technic  of  Mechanical  Drafting,  .oblong  4to,  boards,    *i  oo 


36     D.   VAN   NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Reiser,  F.     Hardening  and  Tempering  of  Steel.     Trans,  by  A. 

.   Morris  and  H.  Robson i2mo,  *2  50 

Reiser,  N.     Faults  in  the  Manufacture  o*  Woolen  Goods.     Trans. 

by  A.  Morris  and  H.  Robson .8vo,  *2  50 

—  Spinning  and  Weaving  Calculations 8vo,  *5  oo 

Renwick,  W.  G.     Marble  and  Marble  Working 8vo,  5  oo 

Reuleaux,  F.    The  Constructor.    Trans,  by  H.  H.  Suplee.  -4to,  *4  oo 
Reuterdahl,  A.     Theory  and  Design  of  Reinforced  Concrete 

Arches 8vo,  *2  oo 

Reynolds,    0.,   and   Idell,    F.    E.     Triple    Expansion   Engines. 

(Science  Series  No.  99.) i6mo,  o  50 

Rhead,  G.  F.     Simple  Structural  Woodwork xarno,  *i  oo 

Rhodes,  H.  J.    Art  of  Lithography 8vo,  3  50 

Rice,  J.  M.,  and  Johnson,  W.  W.    A  New  Method  of  Obtaining 

the  Differential  of  Functions i2mo,  o  50 

Richards,  W.  A.     Forging  of  Iron  and  Steel lamo,  i  50 

Richards,  W.  A.,  and  North,  H.  B.    Manual  of  Cement  Testing, 

lamo,  *i  50 

Richardson,  J.     The  Modern  Steam  Engine 8vo,  *3  50 

Richardson,  S.  S.    Magnetism  and  Electricity xarno,  *2  oo 

Rideal,  S.     Glue  and  Glue  Testing 8vo,  *4  oo 

Rimmer,  E.  J.    Boiler  Explosions,  Collapses  and  Mishaps. 8 vo,  *i  75 

Rings,  F.     Concrete  in  Theory  and  Practice i2mo,  *2  50 

Reinforced  Concrete  Bridges 4to,  *s  oo 

Ripper,  W.     Course  of  Instruction  in  Machine  Drawing. .   folio,  *6  oo 
Roberts,  F.  C.     Figure  of  the  Earth.     (Science  Series  No.  79.) 

i6mo,  o  50 
Roberts,  J.,  Jr.     Laboratory  Work  in  Electrical  Engineering 

8vo,  *2  oo 

Robertson,  L.  S.     Water-tube  Boilers 8vo,  2  oo 

Robinson,  J.  B.     Architectural  Composition 8vo,  *2  50 

Robinson,  S.  W.    Practical  Treatise  on  the  Teeth  of  Wheels. 

(Science  Series   No.   24.) i6mo,  o  50 

• Railroad  Economics.     (Science  Series  No.  59.) . . .  .i6mo,  o  50 

Wrought  Iron  Bridge  Members.     (Science   Series  No. 

60.) i6mo,  o  50 


D.   VAN   NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG     37 

Robson,  J.   H.     Machine   Drawing  and   Sketching 8vo,  *i  50 

Roebling,  J.  A.     Long  and  Short  Span  Railway  Bridges.  .   folio,  25  oo 

Rogers,  A.     A  Laboratory  Guide  of  Industrial  Chemistry.  .  i2mo,  *i  50 

Elements   of    Industrial    Chemistry i2mo,  *2  50 

industrial  Chemistry   8vo,  *5  oo 

Rogers,  F.     Magnetism  of  Iron  Vessels.     (Science  Series  No.  30.) 

i6mo,  o  50 
Rohland,  P.     Colloidal  and  its  Crystalloidal  State  of  Matter. 

Trans,  by  W.  J.  Britland  and  H.  E.  Potts i2mo,  *i  2*5 

Rollins,   W.     Notes   on   X-Light 8vo,  *5  oo 

Rollinson,  C.     Alphabets oblong    i2mo,  *i  oo 

Rose,  J.     The  Pattern-makers'  Assistant 8vo,  2  50 

—  Key  to  Engines  and  Engine-running i2mo,  2  50 

Rose,  T.  K.  The  Precious  Metals.  (Westminster  Series.) .  .8vo,  *2  oo 
Rosenhain,  W.  Glass  Manufacture.  ( Westminster  Series.  )8vo,  *2  otf 
Physical  Metallurgy,  An  Introduction  to.  (Metallurgy 

Series.)    8vo,  *s  50 

Roth,  W.  A.     Physical  Chemistry 8vo,  *2  oo 

Rothery,  G.  C.,  and  Edmonds,  H.  0.     The  Modern  Laundry. 

2   vols 4to,   half  leather,  *i2  oo 

Rowan,  F.  J.  Practical  Physics  of  the  Modern  Steam-boiler.Svo,  *3  oo 
and  Idell,  F.  E.  Boiler  Incrustation  and  Corrosion. 

(Science  Series  No.  27.) i6mo,  o  50 

Roxburgh,  W.  General  Foundry  Practice.  (Westminster 

Series.)  8vo,  *2  oo 

Ruhmer,  E.  Wireless  Telephony.  Trans,  by  J.  Erskine- 

Murray 8vo,  *3  50 

Russell,  A.     Theory  of  Electric  Cables  and  Networks 8vo,  *3  oo 

Rutley,  F.    Elements  of  Mineralogy i2mo,  *i  25 

Sanford,  P.  G.     Nitro-explosives 8vo,  *4  oo 

Saunders,  C.  H.     Handbook  of  Practical  Mechanics i6mo,  i  oo 

leather,  i  25 

Sayers,  H.  M.     Brakes  for  Tram  Cars 8vo,  *i  25 

Scheele,  C.  W.     Chemical  Essays 8vo,  *2  oo 


Scherer,  R.     Casein.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter 8vo,     *3  oo 


38     D.    VAN    NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE   CATALOG 

Schidrowitz,  P.     Rubber,  Its  Production  and  Industrial  Uses, 

8vo,  *5  oo 

Schmdler,  K.     Iron  and  Steel  Construction  Works i2mo,  *i  25 

Schmall,  C.  N.     First  Course  in  Analytic  Geometry,  Plane  and 

Solid .  i2mo,  half  leather,  * i   75 

Schmall,  C.  N.,  and  Schack,  S.  M.     Elements  of  Plane  Geometry 

i2mo,  *i  25 

Schmeer,  L.     Flow  of  Water 8vo,  *3  oo 

Schumann,  F.     A  Manual  of  Heating  and  Ventilation. 

i2mo,  leather,  i  50 

Schwartz,  E.  H.  L.     Causal  Geology 8vo,  *2  50 

Schweizer,  V.   Distillation  of  Resins 8vo,  *3  50 

Scott,  W.  W.     Qualitative  Analysis.     A  Laboratory  Manual, 

8vo,  *i  50 

Technical  Methods  of  Analysis. 8vo    (In  Press.} 

Scribner,  J.  M.     Engineers'  and  Mechanics'  Companion. 

i6mo,  leather,  i  50 
Scudder,  H.    Electrical  Conductivity  and  lonization  Constants 

of  Organic  Compounds 8vo,  *s  oo 

Searle,  A.  B.     Modern  Brickmaking 8vo,  *5  oo 

Cement,  Concrete  and  Bricks 8vo,  *s  oo 

Searle,  G.  M.     "  Sumners'  Method."     Condensed  and  Improved. 

(Science   Series  No.   124.) i6mo,  o  50 

Seaton,  A.  E.     Manual  of  Marine  Engineering 8vo,  8  oo 

Seaton,  A.  E.,  and  Rounthwaite,  H.  M.     Pocket-book  of  Marine 

Engineering    i6mo,   leather,  3  50 

Seeligmann,  T.,  Torrilhon,  G.  L.,  and  Falconnet,  H.     India 
Rubber  and  Gutta  Percha.     Trans,  by  J.  G.  Mclntosh 

8vo,  *5  oo 

Seidell,  A.    Solubilities  of  Inorganic  and  Organic  Substances .  8vo,  *3  oo 

Seligman,  R.    Aluminum.     (Metallurgy  Series) (In  Press.) 

Sellew,  W.  H.     Steel  Rails 4to,  *i2  50 

Railway   Maintenance    Engineering. limo,  "2  50 

Senter,  G.     Outlines  of  Physical  Chemistry i2mo,  *i  75 

Textbook  of  Inorganic  Chemistry i2mo,  *i  75 

Sever,  G.  F.     Electric  Engineering  Experiments  ...  8vo,  boards,  *i  oo 
and  Townsend,  F.     Laboratory  and  Factory  Tests  in  Elec- 
trical Engineering. 8vo,  *2  50 


D.   VAN    NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S   SHORT-TITL1-:   CATALOG     39 

Sewall,  C.  H.     Wireless  Telegraphy 8vo,  *2  oo 

—  Lessons  in  Telegraphy i2tno,  *i  oo 

Sewell,  T.     The  Construction  of  Dynamos 8vo,  *s  oo 

Sexton,  A.  H.     Fuel  and  Refractory  Materials 12 mo,  *2  50 

Chemistry  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering 1 2  mo,  *2  50 

Alloys  (Non-Ferrous) 8vo,  *3  oo 

and  Primrose,  J.  S.  G.    The  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel, 

8vo,  *6  50 

Seymour,  A.    Modern  Printing  Inks 8vo,  *2  oo 

Shaw,  Henry  S.  H.     Mechanical  Integrators.     (Science  Series 

No.   83.)    i6mo,  050 

Shaw,  S.     History  of  the  Staffordshire  Potteries 8vo,  2  oo 

-  Chemistry  of  Compounds  Used  in  Porcelain  Manufacture. 8 vo,  *5  oo 

Shaw,  W.  N.     Forecasting  Weather 8vo,  *3  50 

Sheldon,  S.,  and  Hausmann,  E.   Direct  Current  Machines,  tamo,  *2  50 

—  Alternating-current   Machines    xarao,  *2  50 

Electric  Traction  and  Transmission  Engineering,  .izmo,  *2  50 

Shields,  J.  E.  *  Note  ion  Engineering  Construction i2mo,  i  50 

Shreve,  S.  H.     Strength  of  Bridges  and  Roofs 8vo,  3  50 

Shunk,  W.  F.     The  Field  Engineer i2mo,  mor.,  2  50 

Simmons,  W.   H.,  and  Appleton,   H.   A.     Handbook  of  Soap 

Manufacture 8vo,  *3  oo 

Simmons,  W.  H.,  and  Mitchell,  C.  A.    Edible  Fats  and  Oils, 

8vo,  *3  oo 

Simpson,  G.     The  Naval  Constructor I2mo,  mor.,  *5  oo 

Simpson,  W.     Foundations 8vo    (In  Press.) 

Sinclair,  A.     Development  of  the  Locomotive  Engine. 

8vo,  half  leather,  5  oo 
Sindall,  R.  W.     Manufacture  of  Paper.     (Westminster  Series.) 

8vo,  *2  oo 

and  Bacon,  W.  N.     The  Testing  of  Wood  Pulp 8vo,  *2  50 

Sloane,  T.  O'C.     Elementary  Electrical  Calculations  ...    i2mo,  *2  oo 
Smallwood,   J.    C.     Mechanical    Laboratory   Methods.      (Van 

Nostrand's  Textbooks.) i2mo,  leather,  *2  50 

Smith,  C.  A.  M.     Handbook  of  Testing,  MATERIALS ..  8vo,  *2  50 

and  Warren,  A.  G.     New  Steam  Tables 8vo,  *i  25 

Smith,  C.  F.     Practical  Alternating  Currents  and  Testing.  .8vo,  *2  50 

—  Practical  Testing  of  Dynamos  and  Motors .  .8vo,  *2  oo 


40     D.    VAN    NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Smith,  F.  A.    Railway  Curves i2mo,  *i  oo 

Standard  Turnouts  on  American  Railroads i2mo,  *i  oo 

Maintenance  of  Way  Standards i2mo,  *i  50 

Smith,  F.  E.     Handbook  of  General  Instruction  for  Mechanics. 

i2mo,  i  50 

Smith,   H.   G.     Minerals   and   the   Microscope i2mo,  *i  25 

Smith,  J.  C.     Manufacture  of  Paint 8vo,  *s  50 

Smith,  R.  H.     Principles  of  Machine  Work i2mo, 

—  Advanced  Machine  Work i2mo,  *3  oo 

Smith,  W.     Chemistry  of  Hat  Manufacturing , . . . .  i2mo,  *3  oo 

Snell,  A.  T.     Electric  Motive  Power 8vo,  *4  oo 

Snow,  W.  G.    Pocketbook  of  Steam  Heating  and  Ventilation, 

(In  Press.) 
Snow,  W.  G.,  and  Nolan,  T.     Ventilation  of  Buildings.     (Science 

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Soddy,  F.     Radioactivity 8vo,  *3  oo 

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